外国参考文献在哪里找【外文参考文献怎么找】

外文参考文献

外文参考文献 SCM is also known as micro-controller (Microcontroller Unit), commonly used letters of the acronym MCU MCU that it was first used in industrial control. Only a single chip by the CPU chip developed from a dedicated processor. The first design is by a large number of peripherals and CPU on a chip in the computer system, smaller, more easily integrated into a complex and demanding on the volume control device which. INTELs Z80 is the first designed in accordance with this idea processor, then on the development of microcontroller and dedicated processors have parted ways. Are 8-bit microcontroller early or 4 bits. One of the most successful is the INTEL 8031, for a simple, reliable and good performance was a lot of praise. Then developed in 8031 out of MCS51 MCU Systems. SCM systems based on this system until now is still widely used. With the increased requirements of industrial control field, began a 16-bit microcontroller, because the cost is not satisfactory but have not been very widely used. After 90 years with the great development of consumer electronics, microcontroller technology has been a huge increase. With INTEL i960 series, especially the later series of widely used ARM, 32-bit microcontroller quickly replace high-end 16-bit MCU status and enter the mainstream market. The traditional 8-bit microcontroller performance have been the rapid increase capacity increase compared to 80 the number of times. Currently, high-end 32-bit microcontroller clocked over 300MHz, the performance catching the mid-90s dedicated processor, while the average model prices fall to one U.S. dollars, the most high-end [1] model only 10 dollars. Modern SCM systems are no longer only in the development and use of bare metal environment, a large number of proprietary embedded operating system is widely used in the full range of SCM. The handheld computers and cell phones as the core processing of high-end microcontroller can even use a dedicated Windows and Linux operating systems.

SCM is more suitable than the specific processor used in embedded systems, so it was up to the application. In fact the number of SCM is the worlds largest computer. Modern human life used in almost every piece of electronic and mechanical products

will be integrated single chip. Phone, telephone, calculator, home appliances, electronic toys, handheld computers and computer accessories such as a mouse with a 1-2 in both the Department of SCM. Personal computer will have a large number of SCM in the work. General car with more than 40 SCM, complex industrial control systems may even have hundreds of SCM in the same time work! SCM is not only far exceeds the number of PC and other computing the sum, or even more than the number of human beings

Single chip, also known as single-chip microcontroller, it is not complete a certain logic chips, but to a computer system integrated into a chip. Equivalent to a micro-computer, and computer than just the lack of a microcontroller I / O devices. General talk: a chip becomes a computer. Its small size, light weight, cheap, for the study, application and development of facilities provided. At the same time, learning to use the MCU is to understand the principle and structure of the computer the best choice. SCM and the computer functions internally with similar modules, such as CPU, memory, parallel bus, the same effect as well, and hard disk memory devices, and different is its performance of these components were relatively weak many of our home computer, but the price is low , usually not more than 10 yuan you can do with it some control for a class is not very complicated electrical work is enough of. We are using automatic drum washing machine, smoke hood, VCD and so on appliances which could see its shadow! .It is primarily as a control section of the core components

It is an online real-time control computer, control-line is that the scene is needed is a stronger anti-jamming ability, low cost, and this is, and off-line computer (such as home PC), the main difference.

Single chip MCU is through running, and can be modified. Through different procedures to achieve different functions, in particular special unique features, this is another device much effort needs to be done, some great efforts are very difficult to do. A not very

complex functions if the 50s with the United States developed 74 series, or the 60s CD4000 series of these pure hardware buttoned, then the circuit must be a large PCB board! But if the United States if the 70s with a series of successful SCM market, the result will be a drastic change! Just because you are prepared by microcomputer programs can achieve high intelligence, high efficiency and high reliability! As the microcontroller on the cost-sensitive, so now the dominant software or the lowest level assembly language, which is the lowest level in addition to more than binary machine code language, and as so low why is the use? Many high-level language has reached the level of visual programming Why is not it? The reason is simply that there is no home computer as a single chip CPU, not as hard as a mass storage device. A visualization of small high-level language program which even if only one button, will reach tens of K of size! For the home PCs hard drive in terms of nothing, but in terms of the MCU is not acceptable. SCM in the utilization of hardware resources to be very high for the job so although the original is still in the compilation of a lot of use. The same token, if the giant computer operating system and applications run up to get home PC, home PC, also can not afford to. Can be said that the twentieth century across the three

personnel of factories or other amateur electronics developers to engage in out of certain products, not the circuit is too complicated, that function is too simple and can easily be copied. The reason may be stuck in the product did not use a microcontroller or other programmable logic device.

SCM history SCM was born in the late 20th century, 70, experienced SCM, MCU, SoC three stages.

First model

1.SCM the single chip microcomputer (Single Chip Microcomputer) stage, mainly seeking the best of the best single form of embedded systems architecture.

2.MCU the micro-controller (Micro Controller Unit) stage, the main direction of technology development: expanding to meet the embedded applications, the target system requirements for the various peripheral circuits and interface circuits, highlight the object of intelligent control. It involves the areas associated with the object system, therefore, the development of MCUs responsibility inevitably falls on electrical, electronics manufacturers. From this point of view, Intel faded MCU development has its objective factors. In the development of MCU, the most famous manufacturers as the number of Philips Corporation.

Philips company in embedded applications, its great advantage, the MCS-51 single-chip micro-computer from the rapid development of the micro-controller. Therefore, when we look back at the path of development of embedded systems, do not forget Intel and Philips in History.

Embedded Systems

Embedded system microcontroller is an independent development path, the MCU important factor in the development stage, is seeking applications to maximize

the solution on the chip; Therefore, the development of dedicated single chip SoC trend of the natural form. As the microelectronics, IC design, EDA tools development, application system based on MCU SoC design have greater development. Therefore, the understanding of the microcontroller chip microcomputer can be, extended to the single-chip micro-controller applications.

MCU applications SCM now permeate all areas of our lives, which is almost difficult to find traces of the field without SCM. Missile navigation equipment, aircraft, all types of instrument control, computer network communications and data transmission, industrial automation, real-time process control and data processing, extensive use of various smart IC card, civilian luxury car security system, video recorder, camera, fully automatic washing machine control, and program-controlled toys, electronic pet, etc., which are inseparable from the microcontroller. Not to mention the area of robot control, intelligent instruments, medical equipment was. Therefore, the MCU learning, development and application of the large number of computer applications and intelligent control of the scientists, engineers.

SCM is widely used in instruments and meters, household appliances, medical equipment, aerospace, specialized equipment, intelligent management and process control fields, roughly divided into the following several areas:

1. In the application of Intelligent Instruments SCM has a small size, low power consumption, controlling function, expansion flexibility, the advantages of miniaturization and ease of use, widely used instrument, combining different types of sensors can be realized Zhuru voltage, power, frequency, humidity, temperature, flow, speed, thickness, angle, length, hardness, elemental, physical pressure measurement. SCM makes use of digital instruments, intelligence, miniaturization, and functionality than electronic or digital circuits more powerful. Such as precision measuring equipment (power meter, oscilloscope, various analytical instrument).

2. In the industrial control application

With the MCU can constitute a variety of control systems, data acquisition system. Such as factory assembly line of intelligent control

3. In Household Appliances Can be said that the appliances are basically using SCM, praise from the electric rice, washing machines, refrigerators, air conditioners, color TV, and other audio video equipment, to the electronic weighing equipment, varied, and omnipresent.

4. In the field of computer networks and communications applications

MCU general with modern communication interface, can be easy with the computer data communication, networking and communications in computer applications between devices had excellent material conditions, are basically all communication equipment to achieve a controlled by MCU from mobile phone, telephone, mini-program-controlled switchboards, building automated communications call system, train radio communication, to the daily work can be seen everywhere in the mobile phones, trunked mobile radio, walkie-talkies, etc..

5. Microcomputer in the field of medical device applications

SCM in the use of medical devices is also quite extensive, such as medical respirator, the various analyzers, monitors, ultrasound diagnostic equipment and hospital beds, etc. call system.

6. In a variety of major appliances in the modular applications

Designed to achieve some special single specific function to be modular in a variety of circuit applications, without requiring the use of personnel to understand its internal structure. If music integrated single chip, seemingly simple function, miniature electronic chip in the net (the principle is different from the tape machine), you need a computer similar to the principle of the complex. Such as: music signal to

digital form stored in memory (like ROM), read by the microcontroller, analog music into electrical signals (similar to the sound card). In large circuits, modular applications that greatly reduce the volume, simplifies the circuit and reduce the damage, error rate, but also easy to replace.

7. Microcontroller in the application field of automotive equipment SCM in automotive electronics is widely used, such as a vehicle engine controller, CAN bus-based Intelligent Electronic Control Engine, GPS navigation system, abs anti-lock paking system, pake system, etc..

In addition, the MCU in business, finance, research, education, national defense, aerospace and other fields has a very wide range of applications.

Abstract: In order to solve the weight problem often encountered in measuring the low-mass objects in the trade and daily life of the modern business, the design of a new pocket-sized electronic scales. This pocket-sized electronic scales Force Sensor gravity signals into electrical signals to measure, and measuring the results of the digital display. The pocket-sized electronic scales with a small size, light weight, easy to carry, intuitive display, measurement and high precision; complex structure, the cost disadvantages. This article focuses on the load cell works, error compensation, the main parameters of selection. And the technical and economic analysis.

Keywords: pocket-sized electronic scales; weighing; sensor; error compensationCLC number: TH715. 1] sign code: A Article ID: 100 522 895 (2007) 0220110204

1 A needs analysisIn modern commerce and trade and everyday life, often

encounter the problem of measuring the weight of the low-mass objects. Although the traditional steelyard can solve this problem, but inconvenient to carry, the efficiency is not high, the display is not intuitive and low measurement accuracy; mechanical spring balance can solve this problem, but the inertia inherent low frequency, high sensitivity, measurement accuracy is not high. With the progress and update of the micro-computer technology, integrated circuit technology, sensor technology, electronic scales rapid development, it has a responsive, high accuracy, fully functional, the display is intuitive, compact, easy to use and so on.

For these reasons, in order to solve the low-mass objects weighing problem, if a small size, light weight, portable, digital display electronic scales, will be popular. Discussed below, that is, the scope of a weighing 5 kg compact electronic scales.2 DesignThe principle of the structure of the pocket-sized electronic scales shown in Figure 1. The main task is to design compact electronic scales weighing the choice of the force sensors. Dynamometer sensor types to achieve the weighing and digital display, the key is to want to force (gravity) signals into electrical signals to measure method is mainly divided into two categories: one is the direct method, namely the use of pressure magnetic sensor, piezoelectric sensor, Piezoresistive sensors directly to the force signal converted into electrical signals; the other is the indirect method, the elastic element as the sensor will pull, pressure changes in strain, displacement, or frequency, and then strain sensors, displacement sensors, or frequency sensor strain, displacement or frequency changes for power. Comprehensive comparison of a variety of sensors, use the indirect method of strain gauge force transducer.Pocket-sized electronic scale structural principle:

Sensor → amplifier → CPU → display → AöD converter

3 sensor device design3.1 worksThe working principle of the strain gauge force transducer strain gauge pasted into force, force-sensitive elastic element, the corresponding strain when the elastic element force deformation, the strain gauge into

a resistance change, which led to the voltage measuring circuit changes by measuring the output voltage value, and then through the conversion can be obtained by the measurement of body weight. Since the pocket-sized electronic scales require small size, weighing in scope, precision and angle even consistency, sensor and display integration, it is selected parallel to the two holes cantilever beam strain gauge load-bearing sensor. Its characteristics are: high precision, ease of processing, simple and compact structure, strong resistance to partial load, high natural frequency.Strain gauge choice of a metal palisade metal mooring paste on the insulating substrate parked strain gages, mechanical strain resistance strain gauge feelings generally 10 - 10 - 2mm, the resistance rate of change of the attendant about 10 - 6 10 - 2 orders of magnitude, such a small change in resistance measured using the general resistance of the instrument is hard to measure out, you must use some form of measurement.

Circuit into small changes in resistance rates to changes in voltage or current, in order to secondary instrument display. Bridge measurement circuit to meet this requirement. In the load cell, R 1, R 2, R 3, R 44 strain gauge resistor pidge measurement circuit shown in Figure 3. R m is the temperature compensation resistor, e is the excitation voltage, V is the output voltage.

论文外文参考文献

关于母性性格、父母教养方式与主观幸福感的相关研

（Julie Desjardins ,John M. Zelenski j, Robert J. Coplan 来一个在渥太华大学,渥太华加拿大安大略省部门心理学,卡尔顿大学经济学学士(1125年)。 10月18日收到2006;收到修改形式在2007年7月31日,2007年9月21日接受。在网上2007年十一月五日）

摘要：现阶段研究的主要目的是探索父母的行为抑制系统/行为激活系统与教养方式的相关关系，以及调查研究主观幸福感与这些因素之间是否存在相关。有95个母亲作为被试，并且被要求完成性格、教养方式和主观幸福感的相关量表。结果显示高行为激活系统的教养方式的父母更严格的倾向于权威型或者民主型的方式。随后的研究显示那些高度主观幸福感和高行为激活系统的母亲更倾向于权威型教养方式，而那些高行为激活系统的和低主观幸福感的母亲则更倾向于民主型教养方式。结果显示了人格在父母教养方式中的价值研究。

1.1Gray关于人格研究的方法。

Gray（1981,1982）提出了三种用来解释人类人格变化的动机系统：行为抑制系统（BIS），行为激活系统（BAS）以及抗争/妥协系统（FFS），尽管大多数的研究主要是集中于行为抑制系统和行为激活系统。根据Gray(1982)年的说法，这两种系统因其长处的差异会导致两种人格来适应开始的两种规模空间的人格即神经质和外倾性人格。在Gray的原始概念中，BIS通常是在惩罚的条件下产生同时产生行为上的抵触。在一个倾向性的水平上，BIS与特殊的焦虑、消极的情感以及神经质联系在一起的。相反的，BAS系统通常是在受到奖励和没有惩罚的刺激信号下激活，同时产生一些方法和主动回避行为（Gray,1982）。拥有强的BＡS人更容易受感情驱使（冲动），有积极的情绪体验和高外倾性得分（Pickering etal,1999）.虽然FFS没有那么明确的与一种特殊的人格相联系，但是却被认为是对于无条件惩罚刺激的响应。

最近，Gray对他的理论进行了修正，更改了他先前提出来的关于行为抑制系统，行为激活系统和阻抗/妥协系统的功能（Gray&McNaughton,2000）。行为激活系统的功能与先前的依然相近，但是现在也包括了对于奖励的无条件刺激信号的响应这样方面。行为抑制系统和抵抗/妥协系统的功能的转变是值得注意的。FFS现在的功能包括之前指定给BIS的，也就是说，FFS已经变成主要的惩罚系统了，作为对有条件和无条件惩罚线索的回答，同时是回避性行为与恐惧的核心因素。BIS现在被认作为是冲突矛盾的监视器。它接收来自ＢAS和 FFＦS内部的信息，同时探测在这二者相互激活下造成的冲突（如：在同时混合奖励与惩罚的环境下）。BIS的输出依然是焦虑，但是这种焦虑的来源与其说是惩罚的线索不如说是矛盾。最后，Gray的修正强调这三种动机系统的交互作用，比如行为将是作为影响连接输出或者BAS和FFS与BIS比较而产生的相对优势的有代表性的因素。

尽管Gray是在多年前做出这些修正，评定手段依然是依靠原始的理论。比如，Carver和White的被广泛应用的BIS关于惩罚敏感性的问卷调查以及我们没有意识到的FFS的自我报告方法。那些依靠与旧理论形成的评定方法到现在依然很实用，特别是在那些测量个体在奖励系统（BAS）和惩罚系统（先前的BIS，现在称之为FFFS）中的个体不同的优势方面。尽管他们很可能使新的BIS和FFFS中的一些特殊功能混淆(见Smillie,Pickering,&Jackson, 2006),他们已经在获取主要的信息和回避动机定位方面产生了作用。（Carver,Sutton,&

Sutton,&Sceier,2000).整合过去的研究和Gray的原始理论，我们在整个介绍中参考诸如“BIS”的惩罚系统。然而，在日益更新的理论中，FFFS是为大部分“BIS”的这些功能而服务的。 Gray的构造理论也已经被天平用来衡量那些来自分类学里面的输出信息，最典型的是艾森克的ＰＥＮ模型。因此，先前的人格调查是怎么用于Gray模型中道现在还不是完全的清

晰。Zelenski 和Larsen 把Gray和艾森克的构造理论做了比较，然后发现与消极影响相联系的如神经过敏症和BIS所负荷的一个单独的因素相联系的特性，以及与积极影响相联系如外倾性和BAS先前的一个独立因素相联系的特性。这些发现启使人想起那些与先前应用于艾森克的PEN理论中的积极的发现相联系的结果（和类似五因素模型特性）也可以应用于Gray的模型里面。这些方法的汇聚显示了等值的一些不同程度，但是更多的研究是利用Gray构造理论的独立方法是很清晰满意的。这是我们在这里采用的方法。

1.2父母教养方式

父母教养方式可以被定义为“对待孩子的态度倾向也就是传达给孩子信息时候汇总的心理丛，及父母在行为表达的过程中产生的一种情绪状态”（Darling&Steinberg,1993,p.488）父母教养方式是由父母的标准惯例和父母对孩子行为的反馈方式构成的一种抚养方式。Baumrind概述出两种独立的能够预言孩子成果的教养维度。第一个维度是用来对涉及父母教养维度、温暖、情绪表达，以及对孩子一件结合的积极援助的回答。第二个维度是对涉及到规律的练习，控制以及需要和期望的要求。这些维度通常使借用父母的回答和需要的等级而被定义产生的四种教养方式即：权威型，专制型，民主型和放任型相结合。每一种教养方式的类型都确信对孩子的成长是不同的，在权威型方式教养下的孩子一般被认为是拥有最好的社会性情绪和学术成就。

1.3性格和教养的联系

这里至少有两种理论能够连接性格和教养。首先，教养可能是性格特殊领域的一种表达。比如，拥有强BIS的父母因为害怕一些不好的事情将要发生可能就会过度保护自己的孩子。如果他们的孩子想要玩一种构造游戏或者参与类似的活动，拥有强BIS的父母由于他们的倾向集中于潜在的危险可能会反对。因为这种原因，父母在教养的过程中较少的满足孩子的想要，反而更多的行动是基于他们的倾向。因此，父母的性格能对通过影响与孩子互动时父母的行为而形成的教养方式有一个直接的影响。

连接性格和教养的第二个过程认为孩子的喜怒无常可能会影响教养行为，由于父母对不同教养方式的孩子有不同的响应，也就是说，父母对他们还自己起作用的方法可能因为他们孩子的生物上的弥补或者易兴奋的情绪而断开。甚至高度焦虑的父母因为他们孩子为了安全而要求这样的爱可能会表现得温和以及高度保护。换句话说，孩子的个性特征可能会唤起父母特别的行为和回答，这些行为能使不同类型的行为不同，这样的作用能真正的减少性格和父母教养方式之间的相关。

1.31经验主义的链接

探索性格和教养的联系的研究既能适用于五因素人格模型又适用于艾森克的PEN模型的基本没有。比如，Metsapelto和Pulkkinen检查FFM的方法是否能够预言母亲和父亲的教养方式3年之后对其进行评估。他们发现公开的经验，低神经过敏，和外倾性与父母的养育相关，公开的经验是与限制相联系的，低神经过敏则与较少的他们孩子的活动的知识相联系。在另一项研究里面，Metsapelto和Pulkkinen发现那些被报告养育孩子偏外倾性的母亲更多的是以孩子为中心的；然而那些被报告养育孩子偏内向的父亲更多的也是以孩子为中心的。 Belsky,Crnic和Woodworth也在母亲和父亲中测量过神经过敏，外倾性，和适合性，然后发现那些拥有高神经过敏的父母更不可能敏感，兴奋，然后比那些没有高神经过敏的人展示更少的积极影响。相反地，拥有高外倾性和适合性的更易敏感，有同情心，以及对他们的孩子温和。

尽管很多人已经争论过关于外倾性和积极结果相关的问题，但是依然有建议认为外倾性是

何消极的父母教养方式相关。比如，Clark等一些人发现那些高神经过敏或者外倾性的母亲使用的是严格的有规律的教养方式（即高控制，低责任）。Clark等人推断外倾性和权威性的要求之间的联系可能是因为外向的的个性特征，如占有和独裁。这些争论的结果表明可能潜在着第三个变量因素制约着父母性格和教养方式之间的关系。我们认为父母的SWB就是这样的一个重要的潜在制约因素。

先前的研究已经发现SWB的不同形式与积极的教养是相关的。比如，在对一部文学作品的回顾中，Coiro和Emery发现在完整的家庭里面，婚姻的满意度与最多的教养有一致性的相关。Ben-Zur也连接父母的SWB和他们孩子的SWB。这样的发现与SWB预言的好的教养的观点是一致的。在这个研究中，我们通过连接那些结合在一起能够影响孩子的主观幸福感的SWB和性格的理论进行延伸。这是考虑到SWB可能对于解释为什么外倾性能够同时预言积极和消极的教养结果有帮助。

更特别的是，强烈的BAS可能预言高SWB中好的子女养育和低SWB差得子女养育。尽管BAS和SWB是连接的（BAS预言积极的影响，SWB的一种组成成分），他们也是很清晰的可分离的构造。而SWB意味着幸福感，BAS则包含着一般的对奖赏的敏感性。这种奖赏敏感性能够证明（）和功能紊乱的方法。比如，那些不能抵制危险性行为吸引力的高BAS的人将更有可能同时不开心（在长时期内）和成为一个不好的父母。相反地，那些能够把他们的追求更有意义的高BAS的人，长时间的赏识很可能同时显示高BAS和良好的教养。事实上,好的榜样本身会被认为是一些High-BAS回报父母。父母可以High-BAS高主客观把更多的注意力放在作为一种潜在回报父母的目标,因为他们有与其他的人生目标(例如,这样的成功反映在其高大小)。

外文参考文献

本科生毕业设计（论文）专业外文翻译

原文：Structure and function of the MCS-51 series

译文：51系列单片机的功能和结构

指导教师：马锐职称：高级工程师

学生姓名：张明明学号： 1002120342

专业：电气工程及其自动化

院（系）：机电工程学院

2014年3月20

Structure and function of the MCS-51 series

Structure and function of the MCS-51 series one-chip computer MCS-51 is a name of a piece of one-chip computer series which Intel Company produces. This company introduced 8 top-grade one-chip computers of MCS-51 series in 1980 after introducing 8 one-chip computers of MCS-48 series in 1976. It belong to a lot of kinds this line of one-chip computer the chips have, such as 8051, 8031, 8751, 80C51BH, 80C31BH,etc., their basic composition, basic performance and instruction system are all the same. 8051 daily representatives- 51 serial one-chip computers.

A one-chip computer system is made up of several following parts: (1) One microprocessor of 8 (CPU). ( 2) At slice data memory RAM (128B/256B),it use not depositing not can reading /data that write, such as result not middle of operation, final result and data wanted to show, etc. ( 3) Procedure memory ROM/EPROM (4KB/8KB ), is used to preserve the procedure , some initial data and form in slice. But does not take ROM/EPROM within some one-chip computers, such as 8031, 8032, 80C, etc... (4) Four 8 run side by side I/O interface P0 four P3, each mouth can use as introduction, may use as exporting too. ( 5) Two timer / counter, each timer / counter may set up and count in the way, used to count to the external incident, can set up into a timing way too, and can according to count or result of timing realize the control of the computer. (6) Five cut off cutting off the control system of the source. ( 7) One all depleting serial I/O mouth of UART (universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) ), is it realize one-chip computer or one-chip computer and serial communication of computer to use for. (8) Stretch oscillator and clock produce circuit, quartz crystal finely tune electric capacity need outer. Allow oscillation frequency as 12 megahits now at most. Every the above-mentioned part was joined through the inside data bus .Among them, CPU is a core of the one-chip computer, it is the control of the computer and command centre, made up of such parts as arithmetic unit and controller , etc.. The arithmetic unit can carry on 8 persons of arithmetic operation and unit ALU of logic operation while including one, the 1 storing device temporalities of 8, storing device 2 temporarily, 8s accumulation device ACC, register B and procedure state register PSW, etc. Person who accumulate

ACC count by 2 input ends entered of checking etc. temporarily as one operation often, come from person who store 1 operation is it is it make operation to go on to count temporarily , operation result and loopback ACC with another one. In addition, ACC is often regarded as the transfer station of data transmission on 8051 inside. The same as general microprocessor, it is the busiest register. Help remembering that agreeing with an expresses in the order. The controller includes the procedure counter, the order is deposited, the order deciphers the oscillator and timing circuit, etc. The procedure counter is made up of counter of 8 for two, amounts to 16. It is a byte address counter of the procedure in fact, the content is the next IA that will carried out in PC. The content which changes it can change the direction that the procedure carries out. Shake the circuit in 8051 one-chip computers, only need outer quartz crystal and frequency to finely tune the electric capacity, its frequency range is its 12MHZ of 1.2MHZ. This pulse signal, as 8051 basic beats of working, namely the minimum unit of time. 8051 is the same as other computers, the work in harmony under the control of the basic beat, just like an orchestra according to the beat play that is commanded.

There are ROM (procedure memory , can only read ) and RAM in 8051 slices (data memory, can is it can write ) two to read, they have each independent memory address space, dispose way to be the same with general memory of computer. Procedure 8051 memory and 8751 slice procedure memory capacity 4KB, address begin from 0000H, used for preserving the procedure and form constant. Data 8051- 8751 8031 of memory data memory 128B, address false 00FH, use for middle result to deposit operation, the data is stored temporarily and the data are buffered etc... In RAM of this 128B, there is unit of 32 bêtises that can be appointed as the job register, this and general microprocessor is different, 8051 slice RAM and job register rank one formation the same to arrange the location. It is not very the same that the memory of MCS-51 series one-chip computer and general computer disposes the way in addition. General computer for first address space, ROM and RAM can arrange in different space within the range of this address at will, namely the addresses of ROM and RAM, with distributing different address space in a formation. While visiting the memory, corresponding and only an address Memory unit, can ROM, it can be RAM

too, and by visiting the order similarly. This kind of memory structure is called the structure of Princeton. 8051 memories are divided into procedure memory space and data memory space on the physics structure, there are four memory spaces in all: The procedure stores in one and data memory space outside data memory and one in procedure memory space and one outside one, the structure forms of this kind of procedure device and data memory separated from data memory, called Harvard structure. But use the angle from users, 8051 memory address space is divided into three kinds: (1) in the slice, arranges blocks of FFFFH, 0000H of location, in unison outside the slice (use 16 addresses). (2) The data memory address space outside one of 64KB, the address is arranged from 0000H 64KB FFFFH (with 16 addresses) took to the location. (3) Data memory address space of 256B (use 8 addresses). Three above-mentioned memory space addresses overlap, for distinguishing and designing the order symbol of different data transmission in the instruction system of 8051: CPU visit slice, ROM order spend MOVC , visit block RAM order uses MOVX outside the slice, RAM order uses MOV to visit in slice.

8051 one-chip computer have four 8 walk apeast I/O port; call P0, P1, P2 and P3. Each port is 8 accurate two-way mouths, accounts for 32 pins altogether. Every one I/O line can be used as introduction and exported independently. Each port includes a latch (namely special function register); one exports the driver and an introduction buffer. Make data can latch when outputting, data can buffer when making introduction , but four function of pass way these self-same. Expand among the system of memory outside having slice, four ports these may serve as accurate two-way mouth of I/O in common use. Expand among the system of memory outside having slice, P2 mouth see high 8 address off; P0 mouth is a two-way bus, send the introduction of 8 low addresses and data / export in timesharing

Output grade, P3 of mouth, P1 of P1, connect with inside have load resistance of drawing, every one of they can drive 4 Model LS TTL load to output. As while inputting the mouth, any TTL or NMOS circuit can drive P1 of 8051 one-chip computers as P3 mouth in a normal way. Because draw resistance on output grade of them have, can open a way collector too or drain-source resistance is it urge to open a way, do not need to have the resistance of drawing utterly. Mouths are all accurate

two-way mouths too. When the conduct is input, must write the corresponding port latch with 1 first. As to 80C51 one-chip computer, port can only offer mill ampere of output electric currents, is it output mouth go when urging one ordinary basing of transistor to regard as, should contact a resistance among the port and transistor base, in order to the electricity while restraining the high level from exporting P1~P3 Being restored to the throne is the operation of initializing of an one-chip computer. Its main function is to turn PC into 0000H initially, make the one-chip computer begin to hold the conduct procedure from unit 0000H. Except that the ones that enter the system are initialized normally, as because procedure operate it make mistakes or operate there arent mistake, in order to extricate oneself from a predicament , need to be pressed and restored to the throne the key restarting too. It is an input end which is restored to the throne the signal in 8051 China RST pin. Restore to the throne signal high level effective, should sustain 24 shake cycle (namely 2 machine cycles) the above its effective times. If 6 of frequency of utilization pilliant to shake, restore to the throne signal duration should exceed 4 delicate to finish restoring to the throne and operating. Produce the logic picture of circuit which is restored to the throne the signal:

Restore to the throne the circuit and include two parts outside in the chip entirely. Outside that circuit produces to restore to the throne signal (RST) hand over to Schmitts trigger, restore to the throne circuit sample to output, Schmitt of trigger constantly in each S5P2, machine of cycle in having one more, then just got and restored to the throne and operated the necessary signal in idly. Restore to the throne resistance of circuit generally, electric capacity parameter suitable for 6 pilliant to shake, can is it restore to the throne signal high level duration greater than 2 machine cycles to guarantee. Being restored to the throne in the circuit is simple, its function is very important. Pieces of one-chip computer system could normal running, should first check it can restore to the throne not succeeding. Checking and can pop ones head and monitor the pin with the oscillograph tentatively, push and is restored to the throne the key, the wave form that observes and has enough range is exported (instantaneous), can also through is it restore to the throne circuit group holding value carry on the experiment to change.

At present, MCU to infiltrate all areas of our lives, which is almost difficult

to find traces of the field without SCM. Missile navigation equipment, aircraft, all types of instrument control, computer network communications and data transmission, industrial automation, real-time process control and data processing, extensive use of various smart IC card, civilian luxury car security system, video recorder, camera, fully automatic washing machine control, and program-controlled toys, electronic pet, etc., which are inseparable from the microcontroller. Not to mention the area of robot control, intelligent instruments, and medical equipment was. Therefore, the MCU learning, development and application of the large number of computer applications and intelligent control of the scientists, engineers.

（1）In the application of Intelligent Instruments

SCM has a small size, low power consumption, controlling function, expansion flexibility, the advantages of miniaturization and ease of use, widely used instrument, combining different types of sensors can be realized Zhou voltage, power, frequency, humidity, temperature, flow, speed, thickness, angle, length, hardness, elemental, physical pressure measurement. SCM makes use of digital instruments, intelligence, miniaturization, and functionality than electronic or digital circuits more powerful. Such as precision measuring equipment (power meter, oscilloscope, various analytical instrument).

（2）In the industrial control application

With the MCU can constitute a variety of control systems, data acquisition system. Such as factory assembly line of intelligent control, all kinds of alarm systems, and computer networks constitute a secondary control system.

（3）In the Appliance of Household appliances

It can be said that the appliances are basically using SCM, praise from the electric rice, washing machines, refrigerators, air conditioners, color TV, and other audio video equipment, to the electronic weighing equipment, varied, and omnipresent.

（4）In the field of computer networks and communications applications

（5）Microcomputer in the field of medical device applications

MCU in the use of medical devices is also quite extensive, such as medical respirator, the various analyzers, monitors, ultrasound diagnostic equipment and hospital beds, etc. Call system.

（6）In a variety of major appliances in the modular applications

In large circuits, modular applications that greatly reduce the volume, simplifies the circuit and reduce the damage, error rate, but also easy to replace.

（7）Microcontroller in the application field of automotive equipment

SCM in automotive electronics is widely used, such as a vehicle engine controller, CAN bus-based Intelligent Electronic Control Engine, GPS navigation system, abs anti-lock paking system, pake system, etc.. In addition, the MCU in business, finance, research, education, and national defense, aerospace and other fields has a very wide range of applications.

译文

51系列单片机的功能和结构

结构和功能的监控监-51系列之一--计算机芯片监控监-51名是一幅一个电脑晶片,英特尔公司生产系列. 这家公司推出8级一个计算机芯片监控监-51系列之后,于1980年8引入一个计算机芯片监控监,于1976年48系列.。它属于这一类型很多行一个芯片的电脑芯片都如8051、8031、8751、80c51bh,80c31bh等,其基本组成、性能和基本教学制度,都是一样的. 8051每日代表-51系列之一--电脑晶片有一个芯片的计算机系统是由以下几个方面: (1)18微处理器(CPU). (2)在切片数据存储羊(128B/256B),使用可以不读书不写数据如因经营不中,最后结果要和数据显示等. (3)存储器存储程序/可擦写可编程只读存储器(4KB/8KB),用于保存程序和数据,初步形成片. 但并不存储器/可擦写可编程只读存储器在一些人的电脑芯片,如8031、8032、80c等. （4)经营的84并肩一/四OP0P3接口,每口可以用作介绍,也可以用作输出. (5)两个定时/柜台,每个计时器/柜台可设立和计算的方法,用来计算的外部事件,可以建立成一个时间的方式也可以和根据计算结果或时间实现控制的计算(六)五切断源头上控制系统.

(七)各一序I/O口UART(异步接收世界/发送(UART)),它是实现一个计算机芯片和一个计算机芯片和通讯系列电脑上使用. (8)强、时钟振荡器电路生产、水晶石英细调需要外部电容. 为使振动频率目前最强. 上述地区内的数据是通过加入单片机.

其中,CPU的核心是一个电脑芯片,它是计算机和指挥控制中心等部分组成,运算器和控制等. 运算器的可携带8人计算a经营单位的经营逻辑,其中,1temporarilies存储装置8、暂时贮存器2、8的行政协调会累积装置、B、注册登记程序国有PSW等. 累积计200人,行政协调委员会结束对进入检查. 暂时运作往往是来自一店经营者,这是经营下去,使计暂时经营成果和行政协调会. 此外,行政协调会经常被视为转运站,在8051年的数据传输. 一般微处理器一样,是繁忙登记. 帮助大家,表示了赞同的命令. 控制程序包括柜台命令详解,振荡器电路和时间等. 程序相当于16. 这是一个字节地址位的程序,其实,内容是未来IA将进行PC. 修改的内容,它可以改变方向,进行程序. 在8051电路动摇一个电脑芯片、石英晶体外,只需要相当频繁调整电容,其范围是12mhz的频率

1.2mhz. 这一脉冲信号,作为8051年工作的基本节拍,即单位时间内的最低.

8051年是计算机一样,在和谐的工作基本控制打,就像打了一个乐团,按照发挥,指挥. 有存储器(程序存储器,只能读),8051年在羊片(存储数据,是可以写出)二读,他们每个独立存储空间处理,处理方式是一样的,一般的电脑记忆. 8051年和8751年拨款程序存储程序存贮器4kb,从0000h地址,用于保存程序和方式不变. 数据8051-87518031128b记忆存储数据,00fh假地址,用于存放操作结果中,暂时储存数据和资料等无人。在这种羊128b,有32个单位字节可以出任就业登记,这是与一般不同的微处理器、8051切片和就业登记成立一个级别相同的地点安排. 这是很不相同的记忆监控监-51系列之一--计算机芯片,除了一般电脑的方式处置. 一般电脑先向空间、存储器和RAM,可安排在不同的空间范围内解决这一意愿,即存储器的地址和RAM,地址分配不同的空间形成. 同时来访的记忆,相应的存储器,只有一个地址,可以存储,也可以撞击,并以同样的访问. 这种记忆结构称为普林斯顿结构. 8051记忆分为程序存储空间和数据存储空间的物理结构,有四个存储空间:我们的程序储存在一个数据存储空间之外的数据存储和一个程序存储空间、外一、结构形式的这种程序装置和数据存储与形式的数据存储,称为哈佛结构. 但从用户的角度,讨论8051年的记忆空间分为三类:(1)在时代安排Fifth座,0000h地点、从容外片(地址用十六). (二)处理数据存储空间之外64kb之一,被安排从地址0000hFfffh64kb(地址16),地点太. 三)处理数据存储空间256b(地址8使用). 上述三个存储空间地址重叠,鉴别设计,象征不同的数据传输的语言系统8051:CPU访问片,以存储器,阻止访问命令Ra用途外用一张旅游片。

8051年1-48芯片计算机与我走/澳港,要求P0、P1、P2和P3. 每个港口8准确双向口,共占32别针. 每一个我/O线可作为引进和输出独立. 每个港口有门闩(即登记特殊功能)、驾驶人、出口实行缓冲. 可当门闩使outputting数据,数据可以缓冲时推出,但这些四个功能自我同一. 在扩大对外开放具有时代记忆系统,这四个港口可准确双向口1/O共同使用。在扩大对外开放具有时代记忆系统,高8P2口地址见客. P0口是一个双向车采用8送数据低地址/出口Timesharing 在8051年的巡回一个计算机芯片和四个1/O港口很巧妙的设计. 熟悉我/港澳逻辑电路,不仅有利于正确、合理地使用港口、激励周边逻辑电路设计的一个计算机芯片有所提高. 负载能力和接口港口有一定的要求,因为产量等,P0和P1口的最终产量、P3口的结构,在不同的年级,所以,负载能力和接口要求其门南辕北辙相处. 不同于其他P0口口,其产量即将年级抵抗.。在使用它的

嘴巴,用共同使用,是生产事故等级亮起电路,它是利用NMOS呼吁采取抵制外,应同时输入,走出失败. 当被用作介绍,应该写

生产级的P3口,P1,P1,内有连接负载阻力划,每个人可以带动4产出模型LSTTL载荷. 而作为输入口,任何NMOS电路可驱动TTL或P1的8051一个电脑芯片P3口的正常发展. 由于产量等做出抵抗的人,也可以公开方式收藏或流失的根源就是反抗的方式,要求公开,不须具备抵抗绘画. 别人都准确双向口也. 当行为投入,要写出1首相应的港口与门闩. 以80c51一个计算机芯片,只能提供港口毫安的电流电产出,它是生产口去要求一个普通的计算是将晶体管、接触的阻力应该在港口及半导体基地同时为了抑制高电力输出P1~P3级是恢复王位是一个着手运作一个计算机芯片. 其主要功能是将电脑变成0000h开始,使一个开始进行计算机芯片进行程序0000h单位. 除了那些进入正常initialized系统,因为它的程序操作失误或操作失误不多,为了摆脱困境,必须按国家和恢复王位,恢复太重要了. 这是一项投入恢复王位,结束了在8051年中国信息表寄. 恢复王位高有效信号,应保持24震撼周期(机器周期,2)有效时间段. 6如果使用频率前去辉煌,恢复王位信号完成期限不得超过4微妙的王位,恢复营业. 逻辑电路生

产情况,恢复王位的信号:

恢复王位的电路两部分组成,包括外部的芯片完全. 外界产生电路恢复王位信号(表)交给史密特的启动,恢复王位样品电路产量,史密特触发不断每一s5p2、机器周期有一次,光有与恢复王位和经营所需insidly信号. 恢复王位抵抗一般线路、电容参数适合6精彩震撼,是否能恢复王位高信号机会大于2周期保证. 正在恢复王位是简单的电路,其作用是非常重要的.一张电脑芯片系统可正常运作,应先检查一下,才能恢复王位没有成功. 检测可以流行和监督寄与初步示波器,并把恢复王位的关键,波的形式,并认为有足够的距离输出(瞬间),也就是通过它来恢复电路值进行实现改变。

目前单片机渗透到我们生活的各个领域，几乎很难找到哪个领域没有单片机的踪迹。导弹的导航装置，飞机上各种仪表的控制，计算机的网络通讯与数据传输，工业自动化过程的实时控制和数据处理，广泛使用的各种智能IC卡，民用豪华轿车的安全保障系统，录像机、摄像机、全自动洗衣机的控制，以及程控玩具、电子宠物等等，这些都离不开单片机。更不用说自动控制领域的机器人、智能仪表、医疗器械了。因此，单片机的学习、开发与应用将造就一批计算机应用与智能化控制的科学家、工程师。

单片机广泛应用于仪器仪表、家用电器、医用设备、航空航天、专用设备的智能化管理及过程控制等领域，大致可分如下几个范畴：

（1）在智能仪器仪表上的应用

单片机具有体积小、功耗低、控制功能强、扩展灵活、微型化和使用方便等优点，广泛应用于仪器仪表中，结合不同类型的传感器，可实现诸如电压、功率、频率、湿度、温度、流量、速度、厚度、角度、长度、硬度、元素、压力等物理量的测量。采用单片机控制使得仪器仪表数字化、智能化、微型化，且功能比起采用电子或数字电路更加强大。例如精密的测量设备（功率计，示波器，各种分析仪）。

（2）在工业控制中的应用

用单片机可以构成形式多样的控制系统、数据采集系统。例如工厂流水线的智能化管、电梯智能化控制、各种报警系统，与计算机联网构成二级控制系统等。

（3）在家用电器中的应用

可以这样说，现在的家用电器基本上都采用了单片机控制，从电饭褒、洗衣机、电冰箱、空调机、彩电、其他音响视频器材、再到电子秤量设备，五花八门，无所不在。

（4）在计算机网络和通信领域中的应用

现代的单片机普遍具备通信接口，可以很方便地与计算机进行数据通信，为在计算机网络和通信设备间的应用提供了极好的物质条件，现在的通信设备基本上都实现了单片机智能控制，从手机，电话机、小型程控交换机、楼宇自动通信呼叫系统、列车无线通信、再到日常工作中随处可见的移动电话，集群移动通信，无线电对讲机等。

（5）单片机在医用设备领域中的应用

单片机在医用设备中的用途亦相当广泛，例如医用呼吸机，各种分析仪，监护仪，超声诊断设备及病床呼叫系统等等。

（6）在各种大型电器中的模块化应用

某些专用单片机设计用于实现特定功能，从而在各种电路中进行模块化应用，而不要求使用人员了解其内部结构。如音乐集成单片机，看似简单的功能，微缩在纯电子芯片中（有别于磁带机的原理），就需要复杂的类似于计算机的原理。如：音乐信号以数字的形式存于存储器中（类似于ROM），由微控制器读出，转化为模拟音乐电信号（类似于声卡）。

在大型电路中，这种模块化应用极大地缩小了体积，简化了电路，降低了损坏、错误率，也方便于更换。

（7）单片机在汽车设备领域中的应用

单片机在汽车电子中的应用非常广泛，例如汽车中的发动机控制器，基于CAN总线的汽车发动机智能电子控制器，GPS导航系统，abs防抱死系统，制动系统等等。

此外，单片机在工商，金融，科研、教育，国防航空航天等领域都有着十分广泛的用途。

外文参考文献

洛阳理工学院毕业设计（论文）

外文翻译资料

系部：经济与工商管理系

专业：工商管理

学生姓名：张言歌

班级学号： B11093306

指导教师姓名：许茂伟

指导教师职称：副教授

The Development of E-commerce and corporate

strategy

E-commerce from the English ELECTRONIC COMMERCE, abpeviated as EC. The contents of two, the first electronic, and the other is commercial and trading activities. E-commerce can be seen as simply the use of simple, fast, low-cost electronic means of communication are not met buyers and sellers to conduct a variety of business activities. INTERNET With the technology become more sophisticated, the real development of e-commerce will be built on the INTERNET technology. Therefore, e-commerce can be seen on the Internet is an open network environment, based on powser server applications, the realization of consumers shopping on the Internet, online transactions between businesses and on-line electronic payment of a new type of commercial operation.

E-commerce in China began in 1997. Chinese goods orders for the system (CGOS), China Commodities Trading Center (CCEC), a virtual

In recent years, Chinas e-commerce although speculation is in full swing, but the actual promotion process, but also the effect of e-commerce remain at the primary level, in particular the relevant laws and regulations are imperfect, the social credit system have yet to be improved in the To a certain extent, impeded the development of e-commerce. By recalling Chinas development of e-commerce, e-commerce on the current situation, problems, analyze the causes, and put forward solutions to this problem and look forward to the future development of the market .

When the technology bubble burst in 2000, the crazy valuations for online companies vanished with it, and many businesses folded. The survivors plugged on as best they could, encouraged by the growing number of internet users. Now valuations are rising again and some of the dotcoms are making real profits, but the business world has become much more cautious about the internet’s potential. The funny thing is that the wild predictions made at the height of the boom—namely, that vast chunks of the world economy would move into cyberspace—are, in one way or another, coming true.

The raw numbers tell only part of the story. According to America’s Department of Commerce, online retail sales in the world’s biggest market last year rose by 26%, to $55 billion. That sounds a lot of money, but it amounts to only 1.6% of total retail sales. The vast majority of people still buy most things in the good old “picks-and-mortar” world..

But the commerce department’s figures deal with only part of the retail industry. For instance, they exclude online travel services, one of the most successful and fastest-growing sectors of e-commerce. InterActiveCorp (IAC), the owner of expedia.com and hotels.com, alone sold $10 billion-worth of travel last year—and it has plenty of competition, not least from airlines, hotels and car-rental companies, all of which increasingly sell online.

Nor do the figures take in things like financial services, ticket-sales agencies, pornography (a $2 billion business in America last year, according to Adult Video News, a trade magazine), online dating and a host of other activities, from tracing ancestors to gambling (worth perhaps $6 billion worldwide). They also leave out purchases in grey markets, such as the online pharmacies that are thought to be responsible for a good proportion of the $700m that Americans spent last year on buying cut-price prescription drugs from across the border in Canada.

And there is more. The commerce department’s figures include the fees earned by internet auction sites, but not the value of goods that are sold: an

astonishing $24 billion-worth of trade was done last year on eBay, the biggest online auctioneer. Nor, by definition, do they include the billions of dollars-worth of goods bought and sold by businesses connecting to each other over the internet. Some of these B2B services are proprietary; for example, Wal-Mart tells its suppliers that they must use its own system if they want to be part of its annual turnover of $250 billion.

So e-commerce is already very big, and it is going to get much bigger. But the actual value of transactions currently concluded online is dwarfed by the extraordinary influence the internet is exerting over purchases carried out in the offline world. That influence is becoming an integral part of e-commerce. To start with, the internet is profoundly changing consumer behaviour. One in five customers walking into a Sears department store in America to buy an electrical appliance will have researched their purchase online—and most will know down to a dime what they intend to pay. More surprisingly, three out of four Americans start shopping for new cars online, even though most end up buying them from traditional dealers. The difference is that these customers come to the showroom armed with information about the car and the best available deals. Sometimes they even have computer print-outs identifying the particular vehicle from the dealer’s stock that they want to buy.

Half of the 60m consumers in Europe who have an internet connection bought products offline after having investigated prices and details online, according to a study by Forrester, a research consultancy (see chart 1). Different countries have different habits. In Italy and Spain, for instance, people are twice as likely to buy offline as online after researching on theinternet. But in Britain and Germany, the two most developed internet markets, the numbers are evenly split. Forrester says that people begin to shop online for simple, predictable products, such as DVDs, and then graduate to more complex items. Used-car sales are now one of the biggest online growth

areas in America.

People seem to enjoy shopping on the internet, if high customer-satisfaction scores are any guide. Websites are doing ever more and cleverer things to serve and entertain their customers, and seem set to take a much bigger share of people’s overall spending in the future.

This has enormous implications for business. http://www.guguji.cn A company that neglects its website may be committing commercial suicide. A website is increasingly becoming the gateway to a company’s pand, products and services—even if the firm does not sell online. A useless website suggests a useless company, and a rival is only a mouse-click away. But even the coolest website will be lost in cyberspace if people cannot find it, so companies have to ensure that they appear high up in internet search results. For many users, a search site is now their point of entry to the internet. The best-known search engine has already entered the lexicon: people say they have “Googled” a company, a product or their plumber. The search business has also developed one of the most effective forms of advertising on the internet. And it is already the best way to reach some consumers: teenagers and young men spend more time online than watching television. All this means that search is turning into the internet’s next big battleground as Google defends itself against challenges from Yahoo! and Microsoft.

The other way to get noticed online is to offer goods and services through one of the big sites that already get a lot of traffic. Ebay, Yahoo! and Amazon are becoming huge trading platforms for other companies. But to take part, a company’s products have to stand up to intense price competition. People check online prices, compare them with those in their local high street and may well take a peek at what customers in other countries are paying. Even if websites are prevented from shipping their goods apoad, there are plenty of web-based entrepreneurs ready to oblige.

What is going on here is arbitrage between different sales channels, says

Mohanbir Sawhney, professor of technology at the Kellogg School of Management in Chicago. For instance, someone might use the internet to research digital cameras, but visit a photographic shop for a hands-on demonstration. “I’ll think about it,” they will tell the sales assistant. Back home, they will use a search engine to find the lowest price and buy online. In this way, consumers are “deconstructing the purchasing process”, http://www.2v2.org.cn/ says Professor Sawhney. They are unbundling product information from the transaction itself.

It is not only price transparency that makes internet consumers so powerful; it is also the way the net makes it easy for them to be fickle. If they do not like a website, they swiftly move on. “The web is the most selfish environment in the world,” says Daniel Rosensweig,chief operating officer of Yahoo! “People want to use the internet whenever they want, how they want and for whatever they want.”

Yahoo! is not alone in defining its strategy as working out what its customers (260m unique users every month) are looking for, and then trying to give it to them. The first thing they want is to become better informed about products and prices. “We operate our business on that belief,” says Jeff Bezos, Amazon’s chief executive. Amazon became famous for books, but long ago panched out into selling lots of other things too; among its latest ventures are health products, jewellery and gourmet food. Apart from cheap and bulky items such as garden rakes, Mr Bezos thinks he can sell most things. And so do the millions of people who use eBay.

And yet nobody thinks real shops are finished, especially those operating in niche markets. Many picks-and-mortar bookshops still make a good living, as do flea markets. But many record shops and travel agents could be in for a tougher time. Erik Blachford, the head of IAC’s travel side and boss of Expedia, the biggest internet travel agent, thinks online travel bookings in America could quickly move from 20% of the market to more than half. Mr

Bezos reckons online retailers might capture 10-15% of retail sales over the next decade. That would represent a massive shift in spending.

How will traditional shops respond? Michael Dell, the founder of Dell, which leads the personal-computer market by selling direct to the customer, has long thought many shops will turn into showrooms. There are already signs of change on the high street. The latest Apple and Sony stores are designed to display products, in the full expectation that many people will buy online. To some extent, the online and offline worlds may merge. Multi-channel selling could involve a combination of traditional shops, a printed catalogue, a home-shopping channel on TV, a phone-in order service and an e-commerce-enabled website. But often it is likely to be the website where customers will be encouraged to place their orders.

One of the biggest commercial advantages of the internet is a lowering of transaction costs, which usually translates directly into lower prices for the consumer. So, if the lowest prices can be found on the internet and people like the service they get, why would they buy anywhere else?

One reason may be convenience; another, concern about fraud, which poses the biggest threat to online trade. But as long as the internet continues to deliver price and product information quickly, cheaply and securely, e-commerce will continue to grow. Increasingly,companies will have to assume that customers will know exactly where to look for the best buy. This market has the potential to become as perfect as it gets.

The emergence of e-commerce is creating fundamental changes to the way that business is conducted. These changes are altering the way in which every enterprise acquires wealth and creates shareholder value. The myriad of powerful computing and communications technology enabling e-commerce allow organizations to streamline their business processes, enhance customer service and offer digital products and services. This shift in underlying marketing fundamentals is now the driving force that is luring many

organizations to empace e-commerce. However, as they are learning, organizations must proceed with caution, as the road to e-commerce is littered with failed initiatives. A plunge in the share prices of dot com companies sent the tech-heavy NASDAQ index into almost free fall; down over 70% of the record high of 10 March 2000. Though an economic slowdown was apparently likely, one thing was painfully clear; most Internet “pure plays” could not find sustainable profitability by operating only as e-commerce organizations simply by excelling in the management of technology, information, and the consumer behavior. Similarly, established companies that viewed e-commerce as a stand-alone appendage to their business would be less likely to succeed in these efforts. Therefore, it is our contention that firms must clearly recognize their e-commerce initiatives as an integral part of their strategic objectives. In addition, we propose that firms that carefully evaluate their customer and competitor base, as a part of strategic thinking, will reap more benefits.

In the process of forming a corporate strategy to respond to the challenges of environmental change, normative thinking requires that a firm should analyze its industry forces and value-chain activities in order to identify opportunities for IT innovation. Furthermore, it should examine assets, resources, and competency of the staff and identify those mechanisms that confer a distinctive advantage over their rivals. Choice of appropriate strategy could then lead to superior performance. In the case of e-commerce, firms implementing such initiatives should carefully analyze external forces, internal resources and their core competencies. The outcome of this process should be reflected through a tight integration between corporate strategy and e-commerce. This study focuses on this outcome and its relationship with corporate performance.

电子商务发展和企业战略

一、电子商务发展

电子商务源于英文ELECTRONIC COMMERCE，简写为EC。其内容包含两个方面，一是电子方式，二是商贸活动。电子商务简单地可被视作是利用简单、快捷、低成本的电子通讯方式，买卖双方不谋面地进行各种商贸活动。随着INTERNET技术的日益成熟，电子商务真正的发展将是建立在INTERNET技术上的。因此电子商务也可被看成是在因特网开放的网络环境下，基于浏览器服务器应用方式，实现消费者的网上购物、商户之间的网上交易和在线电子支付的一种新型的商业运营模式。

我国电子商务始于1997年。中国商品订货系统（CGOS）、中国商品交易中心（CCEC）、虚拟“广交会”等大型电子商务项目在1997年相继推出，拉开了中国电子商务的序幕。1998年“首都电子商务工程”的展开和1999年“8848网上超市”的出现，标志着中国电子商务开始进入快速发展时期，中国电子商务由此“正式启动”

这几年，我国的电子商务虽然炒得如火如荼，但在实际推广过程中，其效果还只是停留在电子商务的初级水平上，特别是相关法律法规的不完善，社会的诚信体系仍待提高在一定程度上阻碍了电子商务的发展。本文通过回顾我国电子商务的发展历程，阐述电子商务的现状、存在的问题，分析问题产生的原因，进而提出解决问题的对策，展望今后市场发展的趋势。

当2009年科技泡沫爆发时，备受炒作的网上公司好像随之蒸发了，众多的网上贸易也被迫流产。劫后余生的网上公司无一不紧缩商务，好在与日俱增的互联网用户在激励着他们。现在，对网上公司的评价又有所提高了，并且很多公司的确也已开始盈利了，但工商界还是谨慎地评价互联网的潜能。尽管如此，有人已大胆的预言：世界上大量经济巨头不久都会以某种方式移师电脑空间。

据商务部不完全统计表明，去年网上零售额增加了26%，达到550亿

美元。这听起来的确是一个很大的数目，但这仅相当于全球零售业总额的

1.6%。大部分的成年消费者依然习惯于到“砖混凝土”（picks-and-mortar）的世界里消费。

其实商务部公布的数字仅涉及部分产业。例如，该数字虽然包括了网上旅游服务，这一电子商务界最成功也是增长最快的行业之一。IAC (InterActiveCorp)，expedia 和hotels两个站的拥有者，去年仅它一家就有100亿美元的营业额，包括航空业、宾馆业、出租车公司在内的竞争对手去年网上营业总额也有大幅攀升，但这些网上营业额攀升的企业在商务部的数字中并未得到体现。

同样，商务部的数字也没有包含财经服务、票务代理、网上色情（去年美国网上色情业营业额高达20亿美元）等行业在内。另外大量与博彩业相关的商业行为(世界范围内的网上博彩业营业额高达60亿美元)也没有提及。

二、冰山之一角

另外，商务部的数字虽然包括了拍卖网站的利润，却没有包含所拍卖成交货物的价值在内，据估算，其价值高达数百亿美元。去年仅eBay这家最大的拍卖网站出手的货物价值就高达240亿美元。按照商务部的界定，数十亿美元的成交货物总价值是没有包括其中的，况且很多B2B模式的商贸形为都是不公开的，例如Wal-Mart公司就明确地告诫其供货商，若想成为其2500亿美元的营业额的一部分，必需采用自己的运转体系。

由以上数字可以看出，电子商务已是很有规模了，并且正在发展壮大。但是网上交易额正受到离线交易的冲击，而离线交易又是电子商务的一个重要组成部分。

互联网正深深地改变着消费者的消费行为。目前，有1/5的美国人在到商店购买电子产品前，会先到网上去查询其最低价，以节省哪怕一毛钱。更让人吃惊的是，有3/4的美国人在购买新汽车时也会首先想到互联网，即使最后成交仍可能是用传统的方式---从经销商那购买，但他们会到网上去了解有关要购汽车的各种信息，并选定网上推荐的最好的经销商。有时，他们还会到相关网站上去打印自己感兴趣的汽车的图片等资料作参考。

作为资深调查顾问的Forrester先生提供的图表显示，在欧洲6亿消费者中，有半数采取在网上查询商品信息，然后离线购买的方式来消费（见图1）。当然不同国家又有不同的消费习惯，例如在意大利和西班牙，采取在网上查询然后离线购买的人数大约是网上直接购买的两倍。但在德国和英国这两个最发达的网络国家里，二者基本相当。Forrester称，人们从网上购物一般都是从一些简单的物品开始的，如DVD光盘，然后向较复杂的商品过渡。在美国，二手汽车是一个增长最快的一个领域。

如果网站的顾客导购做的成功的话，人们看来是乐意采取网上购物方式的，现在网站正在变的越来越明智，它们给顾客更多更实在的服务。在不久的将来，网上购物占人们购物总额的比例肯定会有大的提高。

三、网站的作用

网站建设对商业行为来说意义重大。一个不注重网站建设的公司无异于是在商战中自杀。即便公司并不从事网上交易，网站也会成为人们了解其商标、产品及服务的门户。在电脑空间，一个无价值的网站往往预示着一个无价值的公司，他只会在人们的鼠标点击下被无情舍弃。所以一个成功的公司一定要建成一个优秀的网站，以确保它能出现在每次搜索结果的前列。

对很多用户而言，一个搜索站点往往是他们进入互联网的切入点。全球知名的搜索引擎早已进入当代词典：人们会说他“Googled”了一个公司，一个产品或是一个管道工。这种搜索行为也成为了互联网上最有成效的广告途径之一。并且这也是接近青少年这一顾客群体最好的方式，因为他们花在互联网上的时间远远超过看电视的时间。所有这些都说明，网上搜索成了互联网的一下个战场，例如，Google就是依赖其优异的搜索功能来抗衡Yahoo! 和 Microsoft。

另一条忠告就是公司最好在一家已拥有相当访问量的网站上登载自己的商品及服务。Ebay、Yahoo、Amazon正在某些方面成为众多公司的展示自己商品的巨大平台，不过一个公司要参与到这个平台中来，则必需经得住激烈的价格战。网上消费者往往会拿商品网上报价与当地商店里作一比较，甚至会与别的国家的售价进行比较，即使网上销售在境外是被禁止的，

也会有大量的基于网站销售方式的业主积极去运作。

芝加哥Kellogg管理学院的科技教授 Mohanbir Sawhney说，我们应清楚现今消费者购物行为的改变。例如，某人想买一部数字照相机，他会先到附近的商店里去考察实物，选好型号后，他会和售货员说：“我回去考虑一下再来”，然后他回家就会到网上去查该型号相机的最低售价，然后在网上订购。所以从这个意义上说，消费者已不再遵从传统的购物流程。

四、电子商务时代的消费者

不只是互联网上透明的价格使得消费者成为强势群体，网络也使得他们成为“薄情”一族，如果他们不喜欢某一网站则会毫不犹豫地离开。“网络是世界上最自私的场所”，Yahoo!执行总裁Daniel Rosensweig 称，“人们应用互联网可谓，随时、随地、随人所欲”。

像Yahoo!这样，致力于寻找并提供客户需要的各种信息的网站并不在少数（Yahoo!每月据称有2.6亿访问者）。消费者最关心的就是最详实的商品名录及其报价，Amazon执行总裁Jeff Bezos说：“我们经营的基础是消费者的信任”。Amazon现在已是世界闻名的图书经销商，以前它也曾在网上销售过其它产品，例如保健品、珠宝和精选的食品。Bezos先生认为除仓储超市里那些体积大价格低的物品外，他们甚至可以出售一切，这也是数以百万计的消费者选择eBay的原因。

即便如此，没有人会认为传统意义的商店可以消失，特别是那些“投机”性更强的领域。许多“砖混凝土”的商店仍有着不凡的业绩，例如杂货市场等，但象音像和旅游市场则受到了来自互联网实实在在的冲击。作为互联网上最大的旅游代理商的Expedia旅游公司，其老板声称未来美国民众网上预订旅游服务的比例，将会从如今的20%上升到50%。Bezos先生估计未来十年网上零售业将会达到零售总额的10-15%，并将深刻地改变人们的消费面对来势汹汹的网上营销，传统的商场将如何应对呢？

Dell计算机公司的创始人Michael Dell先生，一直领导个人计算机的直销市场，他认为凭借各层销售商店去出售计算机的方式只能进陈列馆作为古董了，Dell采用的直销方式已收到了良好的效果。近来，Apple 和Sony的专卖店计划展示全部可以在网上查到的该品牌商品，也是应对措施

之一。从长远看，网上和离线销售方式也必将融合，传统商店也将成为多种销售手段观念并存的集合体：打印出的商品名录、家庭电视直销、电视订货以及电子商务网站具全。但从消费者角度来说，从网上订货还是他们最为乐意的消费方式。

网上销售最大的优势就在于其低价，这是因为网上商品没有多层中转，于是也就没有多层加价，它们一般都是直接从生产厂家直接到消费者。如果在互联网上消费者可以买到最低价格的商品并能得到最好的服务，还会有人去其它地方购物吗？

当然，消费才在网上购物时，可能会面对欺诈行为。但随着互联网的发展，它传递商品信息速度进一步加快，加上提供同一商品的多家网站必然会考虑自己的长远发展，而争相提供准确翔实的商品信息和价格，并提供优质服务，以抓住更多的用户。所以网上市场肯定会越来越完善。

商业运作中电子商务的出现使创造的方式发生了根本性的变化。这些正在改变的方式,使每个企业都获得财富和创造了股东价值。这些由各种各样的强大的计算和通信技术构成的电子商务允许组织精简业务流程,提高客户服务和提供数码产品及服务。现在这种潜在的市场基本面的转变，是吸引许多企业开展电子商务的驱动力。然而,当他们学习时,组织必须谨言慎行, 因为电子商务的道路上充斥着失败的举措。发送科网公司的股价暴跌几乎自由落体;以科技股为主的纳斯达克指数下跌超过70％，2000年3月10日创出新高。虽然经济增长放缓是可能的，有一件事是异常明显的，大多数仅仅通过优秀的管理技术、信息和注重消费者行为的企业不可能具备可持续盈利的能力。同样,建立公司，把电子商务作为一个独立的附体，通过这些努力他们的业务也不太可能取得成功。因此,我们的论点就是企业必须清醒地认识到自己的电子商务举措的一个组成部分，即他们的战略目标。此外,我们建议仔细评估他们的公司客户和竞争对手的基础,这样将获得更多的利益。

在这个过程中形成企业战略来应对这种挑战,从而适应环境变化的要求,规范思维，分析其行业的公司力量和价值链活动以识别机进行创新。此外, 此外，还应该探讨资产，资源和有能力的工作人员，并确定这些机制

赋予的独特优势超过对手，然后选择合适的策略取得好的效益。对于电子商务，企业实施这些举措应该仔细分析外部因素、内部资源和他们的核心竞争力。这个过程的结果应该反映企业战略与电子商务的紧密结合。这项研究着重于这一结果及其与绩效的关系。

外国文献参考

中北大学2011届毕业设计外文文献翻译

外文文献：

Construction of the competition and competition strategy

The goal is to establish a framework, and international engineering and

construction company may formulate feasible strategy, and to evaluate the. The framework has been introduced for the project construction company

outside the eastern area in the construction business is very helpful. In order to measure the market opportunities and challenges, we sent the questionnaires and interviews, the individual to identify important success factors or aspects. Thus illustrates construction company in determining their strategy must

possess the characteristics. Through the research of strategic framework has been set up in this area by an actual construction, an international engineering and construction company is considering to undertake the engineering, to test this strategic framework in specific market environment effect.

By reference to the literature, questionnaire issued a personal interview, and the research target has been achieved. This research using data from the

worlds major construction company. Including 13 U.S. companies, two south Korean companies.

Questionnaires to collect data compiled for investigation and ensure the

consistency of the content. The problem, not the way people wont produce a certain criteria. Free to answer this question, ask questions in order to

guarantee the unfavorable and overmuch. Participate in the companys answer to the question, questionnaire involving the problems in three aspects: (1) the eastern architecture market opportunities and challenges, (2) the construction of key factors YangChengGong city, (3) to determine the strategic framework, construction industry should make adjustments. Each main parts attached to a set of problems under which the object of study, make clear further.

Interview based on construction engineering company voluntary under the condition of the study of the company, in answer

The telephone interviews survey or separate. For these companies how to build and use their own in this area is a strategic framework, if the researchers

believe that the method is feasible, and they put main skills assembly written. By visiting personnel to answer questions, what is eastern architecture market success factor ? The important factor in his company is a positive or negative impact? What effect? Researchers also collected from international architectural engineering, as well as a lesson in later in the project of measures have been taken.

Housing has been the most important in the modern life of demand. Families with more spacious and comfortable housing demand has increased, and hope to have more disposable income in the house. As a result, households

residential become very expensive. In addition, the new population statistics show that currently existing housing needs to sell the house of points,

recreational property and retiree community. Commercial and industrial real estate investment is also very good. In order to judge what real estate market within the scope of comparative spruce, analyzed the market is very important. However, many investment prospects are very optimistic.

The feasibility of the economy, the future of the investment real estate showing strong. But in general economic conditions, also do not exclude it

owner and the occupiers and understand the role of investment and investment project, the influence of the government in property.

The real estate investor can dominate the market this problem with real estate income has more than ordinary shares, the problem is an old problem. Actually no reason to believe that an investor can use the same market information and analytical skills in long-term operation can obtain excess profit. However, using internal message, data analysis and complex analysis method, so investors will probably make a better choice than its competitors. According to the real estate market, real estate investment process for investment and reduce costs

We know

The types of real estate investment in real estate investment is residence

though relatively common form, and some properties of future investors have quite attractive. In each of the different fields during, and residential areas including real estate, commercial real estate, industrial real estate, agriculture, such as golf, and real estate and other special purposes. Although effective analysis skills necessary to investment projects with enlarged and complex and increasing, but the basic skills and real estate investment process remains unchanged.

But the real income in accordance with the income level can rent levels and geographical location and according to the classification. The position of urban real estate value economic influence the effect of economic environment, so the analysis is very important. However, some places of the land clearly more suitable for specific purposes. For example, in the development of new urban residential area, the land may be too expensive, is not suitable for the development of low density garden project.

Because it is so hard to use accurate way to predict future events, forecast and actual differences between the results may cause some serious problems. Overestimates rent rate or future price, low operation cost estimates, or to determine equipment renewal fee will cause serious cash flow problems. Fail to fulfill debt obligations or real estate tax lien may be compelled to cancel. All these things are closely related with investors.

中文译文：

建筑业的竞争及竞争策略

目前研究的目标是要建立一个战路框架，使国际工程建筑公司可以制定出可行的策略方案，并可以对之加以评价。已推出的战略框架对于东欧以外的工程建筑公司在这一地区开展建筑业务很有帮助。为了衡量该地区市场机遇与挑战情况，我们发出了调查表并进行个人访谈，这有助于确认重要的成功因素或方面。从而阐明了工程建筑公司在确定他们的策略时必须具备的特性。通过这项研究建立起来的战略框架已运用于该地区的一项实际建筑工程，〔一家国际工程建筑公司正考虑承接这项工程），以检验这一战略框架在具体市场环境下的效果如何。

通过参考大量的文献，下发调查表和进行个人访谈，研究的目标已经达到。这项研究所利用的资料来自世界上15家主要的建筑公司。其中包括13家美国公司，两家韩国公司。调查表编制得有利于资料的收集并确保调查内容的一致性。所提的问题不加以暗示，编制的方式使答卷人不会产生某种倾向。可以自由地回答问题，问的题目不宜过多．为了保证参与公司的答案涉及的问题一致，调查表的问题集中在三个主要方面：(1)东欧建筑市场的机遇与挑战；(2)确认这一建筑市杨成功的关键因素，（3〕为确定战略框架，建筑行业方面应做出的调整。每个主要部分下附一套问题，使所研究的目标得到进一步明确。

访谈基于建筑工程公司自愿参与该项研究的条件下进行的，对交了答卷的公司，进行了单独或电话访谈调查。对于这些公司如何建立和运用自己在这一地区的战略框架，如果研究人员认为方法可行，他们就把主要技巧汇编成文。被访人员要回答如下问题，东欧建筑市场获得成功的重要因素是什么？这些重要的因素对自己的公司是否有积极的或消极的影响？是什

么影响？研究人员还汇集了从国际建筑工程中吸取的教训，以及在后来的工程中已经采取的弥补措施。

房地产投资的未来趋势

住房一直是现代生活中最重要的需求之一。家庭对更宽敞、舒适的住房需求日益增加，且希望有更多的可自由支配的收入用在购房上。其结果是，独户家庭住宅变得非常昂贵。除此之外，新的人口统计数据表明目前需要将现有的房产转变为分套出售的住宅开发、娱乐性房产和退休人员的居住社区。商业和工业地产投资也很看好。为了在市场范围内判断哪些房地产比较紧俏，对市场进行认真的分析是很重要的。不过，许多投资的前景都很乐观。

就经济的可行性而言，未来的房地产投资呈现出强劲的势头。不过在总的经济环境条件下，也不可排除它的“低潮”期。假如投资商能够制定出一个稳妥的策略，那么他们将会获得可观的收益。这些策略包括有效经营和管理地产，分析问题所在，并给予纠正，处理房主与承租者之间的矛盾，了解投资的作用及其对投资项目所产生的影响，把政府在限制产权方面所起的作用纳人计划之中。

房地产的投资者能否主宰市场这个问题同房地产收益是否已超过普通股票收益的问题一样，也是一个老问题。实际上没有理由相信一个投资者会利用相同的市场信息和分析技能在长期的经营中能够获得超额利润。不过，利用内部消息，有效的数据分析和复杂分析方法，这样的投资者很可能能够做出比其对手更好的抉择。房地产市场继续为按房地产投资过程投资并减少“信息费”而获得较好成果的投资者们提供机会。

我们知道“幸运”或运气可能会产生短期反常收益。我们甚至也知道会有少数人因为善于“探听”消息从而避免付出昂贵的代价并取得成功。这些人尽管为数不多，他们具有凭直觉按房地产投资过程办事的才能。如果你也有这方面天才的话，就别研究了也去搞投资吧。

房地产投资的种类虽然住宅投资是房地产中较为普遍的形式，还有几种地产对未来的投资者也有相当大的吸引力。在每种地产中，还有不同的领域包括住宅房地产、商业地产、工业地产、农业地产，以及诸如高尔夫球场等特殊用途的地产。尽管有效分析所必需的投资技巧随着工程项目增大和复杂而日益增多，但其基本的评估技巧和房地产投资过程仍然未变。可创收的房地产也可以按照收人水平和租金等级并根据地理位置分类。城区位置的经济影响对房地产价值产生的效果很大，因此对经济环境的分析十分重要。然而，某些位置的土地明显地更适合于特定用途。例如，在新开发的城市住宅区内，土地可能太昂贵，就不适于开发密度低的花园式的项目。

由于很难用精确的方式预测将来要发生的事件，预测与实际结果间的差异可能导致一些严重的问题。过高地估计租金增长率或将来的出售价格，过低地估计营运费用，或未能充分确定设备更新费用都会引起产重的现金流动问题。未能履行债务义务或房地产课税留置权可能被强制取消。所有这几点都与投资者密切相关。

第页，共6页

外文参考文献译文及原文

本科毕业设计（论文）

外文参考文献译文及原文

学院_____计算机学院______

专业___计算机科学与技术___

年级班别____2009级（1）班__

学号

学生姓名_______ ________

指导教师______ ________

2013 年 5 月

译文：

前言 ......................................................................................................................................... 1

第一章微软.NET平台的介绍 .............................................................................................. 3

1.1 简介 ................................................................................................................................ 3

1.1.1 .NET平台简介 ................................................................................................ 3

1.1.2 微软的.NET和WINDOWS的基因................................................................. 4

1.1.3 微软 .NET体系结构 ..................................................................................... 4

1.1.4 .NET平台的特点 ............................................................................................ 4

1.1.5 多国语言的发展 ............................................................................................. 5

1.1.6 平台和处理器独立性 .................................................................................... 6

1.1.7 自动内存管理 ................................................................................................. 7

1.1.8 支持的版本 ...................................................................................................... 7

1.1.9 支持的开放标准 ............................................................................................. 8

1.1.10 配置简单 ........................................................................................................ 8

1.1.11 分布式体系结构 ........................................................................................... 9

1.1.12 与非托管代码的互用 .................................................................................. 9

原文：

Foreword ...................................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter1 Introduction of the Microsoft .NET Platform .................................. 13

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 13

1.1.1 Introduction of the .NET Platform ................................................ 13

1.1.2 Microsoft .NET and Windows DNA ......................................................... 15

1.1.3 Microsoft .NET Architecture Hierarchy ....................................... 15

1.1.4 Features of the .NET Platform ......................................................... 16

1.1.5 Multilanguage Development .................................................................. 17

1.1.6 Platform and Processor Independence ........................................... 18

1.1.7 Automatic Memory Management ............................................................. 19

1.1.8 Versioning Support .................................................................................. 20

1.1.9 Support for Open Standards ................................................................ 21

1.1.10 Easy Deployment ...................................................................................... 22

1.1.11 Distributed Architecture .................................................................. 23

1.1.12 Interoperability with Unmanaged Code ....................................... 23

译文：

前言

在电脑软件的历史上，很少有一种技术能够得到开发者和业界如此强烈的正面响应。全球已经有数百万的开发者下载了Microsoft的.NET软件开发工具包，已经出现了很多有关.NET平台及其相关技术和语言的教材、网站和新闻团体。

Microsoft在创建.NET上已经投入了数十亿美元进行了多年的研究。.NET是一种全面的策略，它由操作系统、数据库服务器、应用程序服务器和.NET运行时库组成，还包括运行于.NET平台之上的操纵语言。

很多人把.NET平台看作先前所说的Windows DNA的实际实现，也有人把它看作是改进先前技术和语言的结果。然而，这些仅仅说明了.NET是对Microsoft以前技术的重大改进。其实.NET平台是从头开始设计的，包括许多内在目标，如安全性、可升级性、可靠性、灵活性和互操作性。为了使.NET平台适合于企业和开发者，所有这些目标从一开始就被考虑到了。

NET平台呈现了Microsoft思想的重大转变。建立.NET平台时，Microsoft表现出对开放标准极大的支持，如XML、SOAP和UDDI，而不是建立自己的标准和技术。而且.NET平台的核心部分（Common Language Infrastructure, CLI）和C#规范都已提交给ECMA，并通过了标准化。

C#来源于C和C++，是一种简单的、现代的、面向对象和类型安全的编程语言，由Microsoft的Anders Hejlsberg专门为.NET平台开发的语言，继承了许多语言的特征，如C、C++和Java。C#是为了综合Visual Basic的简单和C++作为面向对象语言的功能强大的优点而写的，对于开发者来说，C#使企业应用程序的创建、调试和配置变得很容易。有人预言，C#将成为在.NET平台上开发应用程序最受欢迎的语言。

作为Visual Studio IDE的下一个版本，Visual Studio.NET也是.NET战略的关键组成部分。Visual Studio.NET IDE也已经被整合并装入了大量的新功能。位图编辑器、调试器、Web窗体设计器、Windows窗体设计器、Web服务设计器、XML编辑器、HTML编辑器、Web浏览器、服务器资源管理器和多语言支持，所有这些都被集成在IDE中。 C#.NET Web开发指导的重点不是教你C#语言的核心内容，而是提供代码实例来帮

助你使用.NET框架类库的功能。基础类库的.NET框架集合覆盖了大量API。尽管不可能在一本书中包含所有的特征，但是本书中包含了其中的关键思想、类库和.NET框架的API，希望本书能够帮助你容易地使用C#创建新的应用程序。

既然有这么多特征要学习和掌握，那就不要再等待了，咱们现在就开始吧！

第一章微软.NET平台的介绍

1.1简介

Microsoft在创建.NET上已经投入了数十亿美元并进行了多年的研究，并且将极大可能考虑把它作为新兴的标准。许多微软的伙伴也宣布支持NET工具和部件——你可以浏览http://msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio/partners上的供应商表来查看。

.NET平台能提供强大的新服务，新的独立于处理器的二进制格式，新的管理语言，现有的语言扩展的管理语言，这样的例子不胜枚举。没有良好的操作背景是不可能有效地使用这些新工具的来运行你的应用程序。在这一章中，我们来看一看.NET平台的各个组成部分。我们不仅介绍他们的技术和概念，而且还要用专业术语去解释它们。这将使你对.NET平台的内部工作有一个深入的了解，并在接下来的章节中能有更多的收获。

1.1.1 .NET平台简介

.NET平台的所处的背景是:世界正在从个人电脑连接到一个服务器(比如互联网)中改变到一个地方的所有职能设备、电脑和服务协同工作中能为用户提供更丰富的体验。.NET平台是微软为软件开发人员给这种改变提供的解答。.NET平台到底有几个组成部分，每个人都会给你不同的答案。比如微软的商务对话和结构化查询语言以及.NET中的我的服务，它们中的第一个可见组件.NET通行证通常被视为.NET平台的有机组成部分。然而，对很多人来说，.NET框架是当.NET被提到时我们想象中的样子。它包括VS.NET，.NET公共语言库（CLR）和.NET基类库（BCL）。其他组件可能会要求特定的应用，但它们不是所有.NET应用程序的必要组成部分。

下面来看.NET的整体结构，它由这几个个主要部分组成： ■ .NET框架一个全新的应用开发平台。 ■几个.NET产品多重基于.NET框架的应用，包括新版本的并由可扩展标记语言（XML）在.NET平台上的集成交互和结构化查询语言（SQL）服务器。

■几种.NET服务它是由微软为在.NET框架开发应用程序使用的。微软的Hailstorm实际上是一个囊括了微软品牌的最重要网站某些服务的计划。

■公共语言库托管执行环境，处理内存分配，捕获错误，并与作业系统服务进行交

互。

■基类库对组件的编程和应用程序接口（API）的广泛的收集。 ■两个最高发展目标一个用于Web应用程序（ASP.NET），另外一个用于普通的Windows应用程序（Windows 表格）。

由.NET框架提供的好处包括：缩短开发周期（减少代码重用，减少编程意外，多种编程语言的支持），更简单的配置，由于整体式安全性而导致更少的数据类型相关的错误，由于垃圾回收器的存在而引起内存泄漏的减少，而且，具有一般的更具可扩展性、可靠性的应用程序。

1.1.2微软的.NET和WINDOWS的基因

.NET周围中的一些营销宣言听起来很熟悉：.NET平台被称为WINDOWS基因的下一代。不过，虽然视窗系统的基因确实提供了健壮的，可扩展的，分布式系统的基石，但是对一些人来说其本身并没有什么实质性。

Windows DNA的是一种技术规范，重点是对微软服务器产品的基础建设，利用多种技术和语言（ASP，HTML，JavaScript，MTS，COM等等），其中有相当多是与开发无关的。这些服务器和语言包括不同的API和系统，使互操作性达到最好。.NET与其有很大的不同：它不只是一个规范。在它的好的产品中，它包括语言所需要的工具和发展，使n层应用这些类型更容易，整齐地作为一个单一的连贯和全面的API封装。

1.1.3 微软 .NET体系结构

从本质上讲，根据公共语言规范，.NET语言编译的种类和微软中间语言（MSIL，或者只是IL）的输出是不同的。应用程序开发的主要类型是Web窗体，Web服务和Windows窗体应用程序。这些应用程序使用XML和简单对象访问协议（SOAP）进行通信，从而使得他们能在基类库中继承并能在公共语言中运行。 Visual Studio.NET不仅是为了发展需要.NET Framework应用程序，而且它还提供了可扩展的架构，从而使之成为发展.NET软件的理想选择。

1.1.4 .NET平台的特点

.NET平台的核心是在公共语言库，基类库，和公共语言规范中发现的。 .NET的基

类库用相同的方法揭露了公共语言库的功能，这样，Windows API允许你利用的Windows作业系统的特点的共同语言运行库的功能。而且，它也提供了许多更高级别的功能，促进代码重用。

这种架构提供了许多好处，至少一个很大的数目一致的API。通过书面形式向公共语言运行库和使用.NET基础类库，所有的应用服务是通过一个共同的面向对象编程模型提供。今天，一些操作系统的功能是通过调用DLL的访问使用基于C的API和其他设施，通过访问COM对象，从而使开发人员的工作更加简捷，使一切顺利。某些功能只提供给开发人员在低层次的语言工作，从而迫使他们设计决策。

这种新的编程模型大大简化了那些需要编写Windows DNA应用程序的工作或为了完成应用程序的几乎所有Win32和COM项目的工作难度。开发人员不再需要有一个对GUIDS、调用、释放、HRESULTS等等有着深入了解的Windows或COM的大师。.NET也不是隐藏在开发这些之中，在新的网络平台上，这些概念根本不存在的。

另一个为.NET开发人员带来极大的好处是其错误异常处理模型。为Windows开发平台软件始终意味着你会出现错误的地方，特别是在错误的方式会返回值。有些函数会返回错误的Win32代码，一些返回HRESULTS，还有的则比较例外，所有要求程序员编写错误处理代码的不同类型。 .NET中，所有的错误报告都会通过这个模型，从而大大简化了书写，阅读和维护代码。由于公共语言规范和通用类型系统，.NET也可以在跨模块和跨语言的界限工作

1.1.5 多国语言的发展

由于许多语言对.NET公共语言运行库有规范，现在更容易语言应用部分适应你的操作。以前，不同的编程语言互操作是允许的，如COM或CORBA，这样做是通过一个接口定义语言（IDL）的来实现的。.NET平台的语言，通过MSIL对彼此的使用加以整合。虽然它包含指示类似的汇编代码和移入和移出寄存器变量，它也包含了管理对象和调用它们的方法，操纵阵列，提高和捕获异常的说明。

Microsoft公共语言规范描述了其他开发工具，作者必须为他们的编译器输出IL代码，使它们能很好的融入.NET语言。微软目前针对.NET公共语言运行库的几个编译器提供了IL代码：C + +的托管扩展的C＃，JAVAScript和Visual Basic中。此外，微软和其他几家公司正在生产用于语言的编译器。这些编译器也针对.NET公共语言运行

库。目前支持为COBOL，Eiffel，Fortran语言，Perl，Python和Scheme。供应商还公布了其他不同的许多语言。这是一个当前供应商的列表：

http://msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio/partners/language/default.asp。

为什么你应该关心的IL详情？因为它为.NET管理着跨语言功能。由于IL整个翻译的开销的复杂性，无接口定义语言需要启用跨语言的元数据来处理。举例来说，一个对IL的定义，同样的对象可以不管是不是能捕获.NET语言。您的组件在C＃可以书面提出一个可以由Fortran采用资讯科技应用捕获的异常。而且关于不同的调用约定或数据类型，不必再担心无缝互操作性。

跨语言继承的另一个特点是可以使用IL。现在您可以创建源代码，而且无需再为新类中的基本成分编写其他的语言。例如，您可以创建一个C++的类，从Visual Basic中实现了一个派生类。.NET可以实现这一点，因为它定义和类型系统都提供了一个共同的.NET语言。

对应用开发的规范下，Windows DNA的巨大挑战之一是各种语言开发的应用程序时的调试。由于统一的Visual Studio.NET开发环境和IL都使用了.NET语言作为输出，跨语言调试就不会排斥汇编语言。 .NET公共语言运行库调试应用程序，完全支持跨语言的界限。运行库还提供了内置的堆叠设施，使其更容易找到漏洞和错误。

1.1.6 平台和处理器独立性

中间语言是与CPU无关的，它远高于大多数机器语言水平。.NET应用程序可以在任何平台上支持写、新建以及托管，这样就可以支持.NET公共语言运行库。由于.NET通用类型系统定义不论基本数据类型大小都可以使用.NET应用程序，而且这些应用程序可以在公共语言的环境中运行，所以任何硬件或操作系统都支持.NET平台。

虽然在写这篇文章的时候，.NET应用程序只能运行在Windows平台。但2001年6月27日，微软宣布，它已经与Corel达成协议，共同开发一个C＃编译器和.NET 框架基础结构组件，它们将共享源代码并执行FreeBSD版本的UNIX。这个测试版本目前预计将在2002年上半年的某个时候发布。

几个星期后，也就是在二零零一年七月十日微软给出了积极的信号。一个深蓝设计的.NET，这是一个为Linux用户界面设计的流行的Gnome计划的开源版本。你可以在www.go-mono.net找到该项目，称为MONO。该小组正在开发一个C＃语言的编译器，以

及.NET公共语言运行库，而且关于基类库的工作也开始了。在2001年年底该项目的发布了它的第一个可用单代码计划。

1.1.7 自动内存管理

提到内存泄漏问题，可能一个开发环境中并没有提供自动内存来管理开发，从而导致调试无数个小时。对那些想在这个工作中花费一些时间来降低棘手的代码的人来说，绕过资源管理应该是一种不错的方法。

从Visual Basic开发人员或有COM背景与未来技术的相关的人员的角度来说，这项技术在只有一个对象而且没有其他物体对其引用的时候会恢复内存，而且基本上它不再需要使用内存。虽然这在理论上听起来完善，但在实践中却有几个问题。最常见的是循环引用问题，即一个对象到另一个对象，它本身包含一个回到第一个对象的引用。当内存管理的对象不使用它们看起来时候的摸样时，这些对象将始终大于零。因此，除非它们是隐式解构，不然他们的内存可能永远不会被发现。

C或C++程序员的习惯是自己销毁对象，因为他们能管理其自有的内存。他们不信任任何人能利用管理资源并将之照顾好。然而，在.NET环境下，微软正在努力使软件开发更加容易。在本章后面的内容，我们涉及.NET如何进行已经经过严格的引用计数或手动内存管理方法改进的垃圾收集工作。

1.1.8 支持的版本

谁如果不理解 “DLL HELL”，那就是他尚未开发Windows（或至少支持）软件很长时间。对于外行，当客户使用您的应用程序相同的DLL之一安装了一个软件包时，你会发现自己就身在DLL HELL之中。但是，所有开发人员总是把每件事情都向后100％兼容，就像您的应用程序使用此DLL的版本1.0，新的1.1软件版本能兼容1.0版本的，对不对？当新的DLL使您的应用程序表现出一些奇怪的问题或者完全停止工作的时候，你要经过大量调查找出有问题的DLL是什么，并用新的版本替换您的软件版本。但是，如果现在他们的新软件不工作了，那么就是DLL HELL发挥作用了。当应用程序加载库时，许多开发人员仅需要采取安装每个DLL的应用程序需要的目录的方法。这虽然违背了共享库的目的，但它是一个解决问题的方法。

COM以前是这样的：你以前从来没有改变一个方法接口，你只是添加新的方法。不

幸的是，软件开发人员经常是玩弄主义者，留下一些“漏洞”的功能玩弄一些人。问题是，一旦在使用时产生了不良的客户端软件，那么改变一个组件的接口会被以前的所谓添加新的方法的行为影响。不过它也有解决方法，由于COM对象是被加载在注册表中的信息，所以只需替代该DLL或应用程序目录，那么这个问题便不会发生。

现在，.NET架构将应用程序组件分开，这样应用程序就能总是加载与它建立和测试相关的元件。如果应用程序安装运行后，应用程序应该始终运行。这是通过程序集和.NET的封装组件实现的。虽然目前的DLL和COM的对象包含了许多不同的版本信息，但是操作系统不会真正使用任何这些信息。程序集包含了.NET公共语言运行时使用的版本信息，以确保应用程序在加载它时建立使用组件。我们将在后面的章节涵盖了更多关于配件和版本如何工作的内容。

1.1.9 支持的开放标准

在今天的世界上，不是每个你可能工作的设备都是运行微软操作系统或使用英特尔处理器。为了实现开放的标准，.NET的建构是基于XML和SOAP的，它将使你可以通过Internet激活应用程序，而不论其背后依托标准的信息基础是什么设施。 SOAP将为不同的系统提供容易的交换信息的方法，而且更好的是，SOAP允许您调用远程系统的方法和返回结果。因为SOAP是一个类似于HTTP的简单的基于文本的协议，它可以轻易地穿过防火墙，不像DCOM或CORBA。

由.NET平台提供的其他标准包括通用描述，发现和集成（UDDI）以及它们的XML接口和Web服务描述语言（WSDL），它描述了一个应用程序代码做目录。通过许多基于开放标准.NET的基础并向ECMA（一个国际标准组织）提交对C＃和.NET公共语言基础结构的标准草案，微软希望籍由软件的未来版本看到其超出自己的领域。

1.1.10 配置简单

今天，基于Windows的应用程序的开发和安装达到了令人难以置信的困难。由于这一点，大多数公司对于用于开发他们的安装程序的第三方工具很不满意。通常需要在几个目录中安装大量的文件，设置各种注册表，安装所需的COM组件和建立快捷方式等等。完全卸载的应用程序几乎是不可能的，即使他们提供卸载功能，大多数仍会遗留很多字节以及碎片。随着Windows2000的发布，微软引入了一个新的安装引擎帮助解决这些问

题，但它仍然有可能是一个不正常的微软安装程序包。即使专门设计一种第三方软件，使得更容易开发一些工具，但要正确地在检索中安装一个应用仍然是一项艰巨的任务。 .NET设计队伍面对这个问题同样感到了的困惑，但.NET队伍计划将这些问题解决了。.NET组件中不引用注册表，由于元数据和引用的使用，组件描述是自发的。事实上，安装大部分.NET应用程序仅仅需要将他们的文件复制到一个目录，卸载应用程序将只是删除这些文件。

1.1.11 分布式体系结构

今天的分布式应用程序与未来的那些仍然有很大的不同。微软坚定地认为：他们十分看好分布式Web服务概念的公司。例如，现在，当用户与门户网站互动时，在他们看来是与一个远程服务器打交道。我们大多数人都知道，通常情况并非如此，至少在那些大规模的网站上不是这样的。其实是各种服务器和应用程序在后台运行，当访问几个远程站点的信息时，服务器结合自己的用户信息数据库，合并成一个集成产品，用户则浏览传递到浏览器上的信息。

由于这些类型的应用很有用，他们的开发和维护都非常的复杂。每条信息提供商已经开发不同的接口来访问他们的服务器上的数据和流程。这是非常低效的重复建设，并在大多数情况相当乏味，所以在许多活动已经形成了三个标准以简化流程：XML，SOAP和UDDI。正如我们前面讨论的，这些都是用来在.NET并都在竞争。但是，少为人知的是，这些都是IBM和Sun的倡议。

1.1.12 与非托管代码的互用

正如你可能已经猜到了，与非托管代码是不被.NET公共语言运行库管理的代码。但是，此代码仍然是由CLR运行时，它只是没有得到诸如通用类型系统和自动内存管理优势。您最终可能会在不同的情况使用不同的代码

■调用DLL函数现在有许多函数都绑定了DLL。并不是每一个公司都要急于推出的.NET产品组件的版本，所以如果你需要接触他们，你会调用与非托管代码。

■使用COM组件这应该是你调用DLL函数的相同原因。 ■从COM组件中调用.NET服务虽然这听起来有点古怪，但它是可能的。一个COM客户端可以调用.NET组件，就好像这是一个COM服务器一样。

这里有一点关于COM互用问题的更多信息。微软并没有想迫使公司放弃现有的COM组件，特别是因为现在微软自己的产品很多是基于COM的.COM组件中的消息，这些消息是在.NET运行的时候，它的互操作层通过非法侵占来处理所有管理运行和COM组件系统之间翻译时传递的，就像与非托管代码一样。

在这其中的另一面，有公司出于对.COM技术的既得利益考虑，可能想使用.NET平台的一些零零碎碎的功能之后，然后才会采取坚持.COM客户端可以方便地通过COM 非法侵占层与.NET组件联系。

原文：

Foreword

Seldom in the history of computer software has any technology received such a positive response from developers and the industry, even while the technology is still in its nascent beta stage. The .NET Beta2 SDK from Microsoft has already been downloaded by millions of developers all over the world. Dozens of published books, Web sites and newsgroups devoted to the .NET platform, and relevant technical know-how.

Microsoft has invested billions of dollars and years of research in the creation of .NET. .NET is a comprehensive strategy, consisting of operating systems, database servers, application servers, and the .NET Runtime, as well as managed languages that operate over the .NET platform.

Some people think of the .NET platform as the practical implementation of the previously formulated Windows DNA. Others consider it as a response to developers’ ticklers of working with previous technologies and languages. Nevertheless, the common misunderstanding still exists, simply assuming that .NET is the mere improvement over previous Microsoft technologies. In fact, the .NET platform has started from scratch, with such goals as security, scalability, reliability, flexibility, and interoperability, thereby making the .NET accessible to platform enterprise.

The .NET platform displays a significant shift of Microsoft’s thinking. While building the .NET platform, Microsoft has shown strong support for open standards like XML, SOAP, and UDDI, rather than building its own proprietary standards and technologies. Even the core part of the .NET platform—the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI)—and the C# specifications have been placed before ECMA for standardization.

C#, developed by Anders Hejlsberg of Microsoft, is defined as a simple, modern, object-oriented, and type-safe programming language derived from C and C++, deriving from a number of languages like C, C++, and Java. Specifically written to offer the simplicity of Visual Basic and power of C++ as an object-oriented language, C# makes it easier for

developers to create, debug, and deploy enterprise applications. It has also been predicted that C# will become the favored language for developing applications on the .NET platform.

Visual Studio.NET, the next version of Visual Studio IDE, is also a key component of the .NET strategy. The Visual Studio.NET IDE has also been given a facelift and packed with a wide variety of new functionalities. A bitmap editor, debugger, Web Forms designer, Windows Forms designer, Web Services designer, XML editor, HTML editor, Web powser, Server Resources Explorer, and multi-language support have all been packed into one single IDE.

The focus of The C#.NET Web Developer’s Guide is not on teaching you the core C# language, but rather providing you with code examples that will help you leverage the functionalities of the .NET Framework Class Liparies. The .NET Framework collections of base classes cover many of the multiple APIs. Although impossible for one book to cover all the features, we have covered, in this book, the key concepts, liparies, and APIs of the .NET Framework, which can help create new applications using C#.

You have so many features to learn and master that we must get started now!!

Chapter1 Introduction of the Microsoft .NET Platform

1.1 Introduction

The .NET platform is the foundation upon which the next generation of software will be built. Microsoft has invested a lot of capital in its development and attempted to make it as the new standard. A list of Microsoft partners has also supported .NET tools and components. You can check http://msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio/partners for a current list of vendors who have .NET offerings.

The .NET platform is anything more than a mere new language, software development kit (SDK), or even an operating system. It offers powerful new services, a new processor-independent binary format, new managed languages, managed language extensions to existing languages, and so forth. Effectively using these new tools makes possible a firm background of the platform that will enhance your applications.

In this chapter, we take a look at the various components of the .NET platform. We not only introduce the concept and technology, but explain the terminology used to describe them as well. This will enable you to have a strong understanding of the internal workings of the .NET platform, thus reaping more benefits from the following chapters.

1.1.1 Introduction of the .NET Platform

The precept behind the .NET platform is the shift from one of PCs connected to servers through networks such as the Internet, to one where all manner of smart devices, computers, and services work together to provide a richer user experience. The .NET platform is Microsoft’s answer to the challenges this change will provide to software developers.

How many components the .NET platform have? Different people have different answers.

Servers such as BizTalk and SQL Server, as well as services such as .NET My Services and its first visible component, .NET Passport, are being described by some as integral parts of the .NET platform. Nonetheless, the .NET Framework, as far as many of us are concerned, can be anything that we can imagine when referring to .NET. It comprises Visual Studio.NET (VS.NET), the .NET Common Language Runtime (CLR), and the .NET Base Class Liparies (BCL). The other components may be required by specific applications, but they are not the necessary part of all .NET applications.

Looking at the overall architecture, .NET consists of three primary components:

■ The .NET Framework A completely new application development platform.

■ Several .NET products Various applications from Microsoft based on the .NET Framework, including new versions of Exchange and SQL Server, which are Extensible Markup Language (XML)–enabled and integrated into the .NET platform.

■ Several .NET services Provided by Microsoft for developing applications running under the .NET Framework. Microsoft’s Hailstorm project actually attempts to package some of the most crucial Web Services under the Microsoft pand name.

The .NET Framework itself can be divided into three parts:

■ The CLR A managed execution environment that handles memory allocation, error trapping, and interacting with the operating-system services.

■ The Base Class Lipary An extensive collection of programming components and application program interfaces (APIs).

■ Two top-level development targets One for Web applications (ASP.NET) and the other for regular Windows applications (Windows Forms)

The advantages offered by the .NET Framework include shorter development cycles (code reuse, fewer programming surprises, support for multiple programming languages), easier deployment, fewer data type-related bugs due to integral type safety, reduced memory leaks attributed to the garbage collector, and, in general more scalable, reliable applications.

1.1.2 Microsoft .NET and Windows DNA

If the propagation regarding .NET sounds familiar, there’s a good reason: The .NET platform is the next generation of Windows DNA. However, although Windows DNA offer some of the building blocks for creating robust, scalable, distributed systems, it generally had little substance in and of itself.

Windows DNA was a technical specification that focused on building software based on Microsoft server products, utilizing numerous technologies and languages (ASP, HTML, JavaScript, MTS, COM, and so on), many of which are quite unrelated from a developer’s point of view. The servers and languages involved all have varying APIs and type systems, making interoperability a challenge at best. Herein lies the big difference: .NET is much more than a specification. A product in its own right, it includes the tools and languages required to make developing these types of n-tiered applications easier, neatly packaged as a single coherent and comprehensive API.

1.1.3 Microsoft .NET Architecture Hierarchy

The compile of .NET families of languages are, in essence, different from the output of Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL, or just IL) rested on the Common Language Specification. The primary types of application development are Web Forms, Web Services, and Windows Forms applications. These applications communicate by way of using XML and Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), getting their functionality from the Base Class Lipary and running within the Common Language Runtime environment. Visual Studio .NET is not required in order to develop .NET Framework applications; but it does offer an extensible architecture that makes it an ideal choice for developing .NET software.

1.1.4 Features of the .NET Platform

The core of the .NET platform is founded on the Common Language Runtime, Base Class Lipary, and the Common Language Specification. The .NET Base Class Lipary exposes the features of the Common Language Runtime in much the same way that the Windows API allows you to utilize the features of the Windows operating system; however, it also provides many higher-level features that facilitate code reuse.

This architecture gives a great number of benefits, not the mere consistent API. By virtue of writing to the Common Language Runtime and using the .NET Base Class lipary, all application services are available in a common object-oriented programming model. Today some OS functions are accessed via DLL calls using the C-based API as well as other facilities are accessed via COM objects, making the developer do the necessary legwork to make everything work together smoothly. Some features are available only to developers working in low-level languages, forcing to design decisions.

This new programming model greatly simplifies the efforts that were required when writing Windows DNA applications, or for that matter, almost any Win32 and COM project. Developers need not to be a Windows or COM architecture guru with an in-depth understanding of GUIDs, I Unknown, AddRef, Release, HRESULTS, and so on. .NET doesn’t just hide these from the developer; in the new .NET platform, these concepts do not exist at all.

Another great benefit for .NET developers is its model for error handling via exceptions. Developing software for the Windows platform has always meant you were pulled into its own inconsistencies: particularly in the ways errors were returned. Some functions would return Win32 error codes, some return HRESULTS, and some raise exceptions, requiring the programmer to write different types of error-handling code. In .NET, all errors are reported in

the form of exceptions, therefore greatly simplifying writing, reading, and maintaining code. Due to the Common Language Specification and Common Type System, .NET exceptions transcend module and language boundaries as well.

1.1.5 Multilanguage Development

Because many languages target the .NET Common Language Runtime, it is now much easier to implement portions of your application using the language that’s best suited for it. Erstwhile methods, allowing such programming languages as COM or CORBA to interoperate, did so through the use of an Interface Definition Language (IDL). The .NET platform allows languages to be integrated with one another through the use of the MSIL. Although it contains instructions that appear similar to assembly code, such as pushing and popping values and moving variables in and out of registers, it also contains instructions for managing objects and invoking their methods, manipulating arrays, and raising and catching exceptions.

The Microsoft Common Language Specification describes what other development tool authors must do in order for their compilers to output IL code that will allow them to integrate well with other .NET languages. Microsoft currently provides several compilers that produce IL code targeting the .NET Common Language Runtime: C++ with managed extensions, C#, Jscript, and Visual Basic. In addition, several companies other than Microsoft are producing compilers for languages that also target the .NET Common Language Runtime. Currently having already supported for COBOL, Eiffel, Fortran, Perl, Python, Scheme, and many more have been announced by various vendors. For a current list check:

http://msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio/partners/language/default.asp.

Why should you care about the details of IL? Because this is how .NET manages many of its cross-language features. No Interface Definition Language is required to enable

cross-language functionality because IL metadata handles the entire translation overhead. For instance, with an exception object defined by IL, the same object can be caught regardless of the .NET language used. Your component written in C# can raise an exception that can be caught by the Fortran application using it. No more worries about different calling conventions or data types, just seamless interoperability.

Cross-language inheritance is another feature made possible by the use of IL. You can now create new classes based on components written in other languages, without needing the source code to the base component. For example, you can create a class in C++ that derives from a class implemented in Visual Basic. .NET can realize this because it defines and provides a type system common to all .NET languages.

One of the great challenges of developing applications under the Windows DNA specification was in debugging applications developed in a variety of languages. Because of both the unified development environment of Visual Studio.NET and the use of IL as the output of all .NET languages, cross-language debugging is possible without resorting to assembly language. The .NET Common Language Runtime fully supports debugging applications that cross language boundaries. The runtime also provides built-in stack-walking facilities, making it much easier to locate bugs and errors.

1.1.6 Platform and Processor Independence

The intermediate language is CPU-independent, and there is much higher level than most machine languages. Once being written and built, a managed .NET application can execute on any platform that supports the .NET Common Language Runtime. Because the .NET Common Type System defines the size of the base data types that are available to .NET applications, and applications run within the Common Language Runtime environment, the application developer is insulated from the specifics of any hardware or operating system that

supports the .NET platform.

Although at the time of this writing .NET applications run only on Windows platforms, Microsoft announced that it had reached an agreement with Corel to develop a shared-source implementation of a C# compiler and the .NET Framework infrastructure components for the FreeBSD version of UNIX on June 27th, 2001. This is currently expected to be available in a beta version sometime in the first half of 2002.

A few weeks later, on July 10, 2001 Microsoft gave the go-ahead to an open-source version of .NET being planned by Ximian, the developer the popular GNOME user interface for Linux. You can find the project, called Mono, at . The group is developing a C# language compiler, along with the .NET Common Language Runtime .Work has also begun on the Base Class Lipary. The release of the first usable Project Mono code is planned for the end of 2001.

1.1.7 Automatic Memory Management

The mere mention of a memory leak problem pings forth images of endless hours of debugging for developers who have come from a development environment that did not offer automatic memory management. Even for those fortunate enough to work with this in some form have likely spent some time trying to hunt down obscure bugs caused by tricky code that circumvented the resource management methodology.

Developers, specializing in Visual Basic or COM, are familiar with the reference counting technique. This technique recovers the memory used by an object when no other object has a reference to it, essentially when it is not needed any more. Although this is, to some extent, theoretically perfect, it has a few problems in practice. The most common matter is the circular reference for one object contains a reference to another object which itself

contains a reference back to the first object. When the memory manager looks for objects that are not in use, these objects will always have a reference count greater than zero, so unless they are implicitly deconstructed, their memory may never be recovered.

For a C or C++ programmer-accustomed to ensuring that objects are properly destroyed, essentially managing memory on their own-this sounds perfectly normal, and a good reason for not trusting anyone else to take care of managing resources. However, in the .NET environment, Microsoft is striving to make developing software easier. Later in this chapter, we cover a how .NET garbage collection works, and the improvements that have been made over strict reference counting or manual memory management approaches.

1.1.8 Versioning Support

Anyone who doesn’t understand the phrase ―DLL Hell‖ has not been developing (or at least supporting) software for Windows very long. For the uninitiated, you’ll find yourself in DLL Hell someday when a customer installs a software package that uses one of the same DLLs as your application. However, your application used version 1.0 of this DLL, and the new software replaces it with version 1.1.We developers all always make sure everything is 100% backwards-compatible, right? The new DLL makes your application exhibit some strange problem or perhaps just stop working altogether. After a lot of investigation, you figure out what the offending DLL is and have the customer replace the new one with the version that works with your software. Now their new software doesn’t work- welcome to DLL Hell. Many developers resort to simply installing every DLL their application requires in the application directory so that it will be found first when the application loads the liparies. This defeats the purpose of shared liparies, but it is one way around the problem.

COM was going to change this: one of its primary tenants was that you never changed the method interface you simply add new methods. Unfortunately, software developers are

frequently perfectionists, and leaving a ―poken‖ function alone just chafes some people. Problem is that changing a components interface once it’s in use can have adverse affects on the client software that expected the old behavior. Because COM objects are loaded using information in the Registry, simply placing the DLL or controlling in the application directory doesn’t work for this problem.

The .NET architecture now separates application components so that an application always loads the components with which it was built and tested. If the application runs after installation, then the application should always run. This is done with assemblies, which are .NET-packaged components. Although current DLLs and COM objects do contain version information, the OS does not use this information for any real purpose. Assemblies contain version information that the .NET Common Language Runtime uses to ensure that an application will load the components it was built with. We cover more of the specifics of how assemblies and versioning works later in the chapter.

1.1.9 Support for Open Standards

Currently, not every device you may want to work with is going to be running a Microsoft OS or using an Intel CPU. As for this point, the architects of .NET are relying on XML and its most visible descendant, SOAP, an emerging standard for sending messages across the Internet that activates programs or applications regardless of their underlying infrastructure. SOAP will provide the means for disparate systems to exchange information easily, but even more, SOAP allows you to invoke methods on remote systems and return the results immediately. Because SOAP is a simple text-based protocol similar to HTTP, it can easily pass through fire-walls, unlike DCOM or CORBA objects.

Other standards employed by the .NET platform include Universal Description, Discovery, and Integration (UDDI), a directory of companies and their XML interfaces and

the Web Services Description Language (WSDL), which describes what a piece of application code can do. By basing much of .NET on open standards and by submitting the proposed draft standards for C# and the .NET Common Language Infrastructure to ECMA, an international standards organization, Microsoft hopes to see its version of the future of software adopted beyond its own domain.

1.1.10 Easy Deployment

To date, developing installations for Windows-based applications can be incredibly difficult, to the point that most companies use third party tools for developing their installation programs, and even then it’s not pleasant. There are usually a large number of files to be installed in several directories, various Registry settings, installation of required COM components, and shortcuts that need to be created, and so on. Completely uninstalling an application is nearly impossible, most leave bits and pieces of themselves around even if they provide an uninstall feature. With the release of Windows 2000, Microsoft introduced a new installation engine that helps with some of these issues, but it is still possible that the author of a Microsoft Installer Package may fail to address every problems. Even with those third party tools specifically designed to make developing installation programs easier, it is still frequently a monumental task to correctly install a retrieval application.

The .NET design team might have recognized this problem, because .NET plans to do away with these issues for good. .NET components are not referenced in the Registry, thanks to the use of metadata and reflection, components are self describing. In fact, installing many .NET applications will require no more than copying their files to a directory, and uninstalling an application will be as easy as deleting those files.

1.1.11 Distributed Architecture

Today’s distributed applications are much different from those we would see in the future. Microsoft certainly believes that they are betting the company on the concept of distributed Web services. For example, when interacting with a portal site, it appears to seem that they are working with a remote server. Most know that it is normally not the case, at least for a site of any significant size. There are various servers and applications behind the scenes as well as accessing information on several remote sites, combining it with information from their user database and merging all into an integrated product delivered to the user via their powser.

As useful as these types of applications are, they are all very complex to develop and maintain. Each provider of information has developed different interfaces to access data and processes on their servers. This redundant development is grossly inefficient and for the most part fairly boring, so there has been a great deal of activity around three standards to streamline the process: XML, SOAP, and UDDI. As we discussed earlier, these are utilized in .NET and also in competing, less well known initiatives from IBM and Sun.

1.1.12 Interoperability with Unmanaged Code

As you can probably guess, unmanaged code is the code that is not managed by the .NET Common Language Runtime. However, this code can still run by the CLR, it just doesn’t get the advantages that it offers, such as the Common Type System and Automatic Memory Management. You will probably end up using unman-aged code in a couple of different situations:

■ Calling DLL functions There is a lot of functionality locked inside DLLs today. Not every company is going to rush to deliver a .NET component version of their products, so if you need to interface with them, you’ll be calling unmanaged code.

■ Using COM components This is likely to be for pretty much the same reasons you might be required to call DLL functions.

■ Calling .NET services from COM components Although this seems to be a little odd, it is possible. A COM client can be made to call a .NET component as though it was a COM server.

Here is little more information on the COM interoperability. Microsoft did not want to force companies to abandon their existing COM components largely because many of Microsoft’s own products are COM-based today. COM components interoperate with the .NET runtime through an interlope layer that handles all the work required when translating messages that pass back and forth between the managed runtime and the COM components operating as unmanaged code.

On the other hand, companies with a vested interest in COM technology might want to use a few bits and pieces from the .NET platform, sticking a toe in before taking the plunge. COM clients can easily interface with .NET components through the COM interlope layer.

REFERENCES:

Adrian Turtschi，DotThatCom.com，Jason Werry，Greg Hack，Joseph Albahari，Saurabh Nandu Technical Editor，Wei Meng Lee Series Editor

外文参考文献译文及原文

广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文

论文题目学部城建学部专业工程管理班级 09工程管理1班学号 13020901023 学生姓名廖丹丹指导教师杨力

城市环境下的绿色屋顶 ........................................................................................................................... 1 GREEN ROOFS IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT ......................................................................................... 6 德国屋顶花园绿化 .................................................................................................................................. 13 Roof Garden in Germany .................................................................................................................... 20

城市环境下的绿色屋顶

摘要

本研究旨在呈现建在这个世纪的近代历史先例的屋顶草坪和花园，展现真实提供了目前水平的防水建筑和园艺技术来改善城市环境的可能性。在欧洲，尤其是在过去的十年中，可用数量的信息在“绿色屋顶”已经大幅增加了。国内最早领域的尝试“绿色屋顶”是最近几年，但建筑行业还没有很好的解决这个结构和生态的方案，这被认为是有点好奇。主要原因是这种态度、可用的国际信息（根据经验，讨论论文，研究、指导方针、手册等）没有达到那些专业人士、潜在投资者和建筑商，他们的决定是普遍接受“绿色屋顶”为前提的。

1．概念和历史

屋顶花园的概念可以追溯到最早的实际上是为了人的建筑活动。在整个历史过程中我们可以看到一个需求是在屋顶种植植被，其中最著名的是古代文明巴比伦的空中花园。在罗马帝国时代和中世纪的绿色屋顶被统治阶级主要用于显示奢侈。在现代，特别是在二十世纪的建筑，绿色的花园被视为一种自然现象。一个特殊的实现可以观察到屋顶花园在北欧的本土建筑在其传统的斜屋顶上的草。如今，时代的人口稠密的城市地区缺乏绿色草皮引起关注，因为这个原因，生态建筑的支持者在欧洲已经集中解决几十年来与技术和绿化的有关问题，恢复绿色区域。长视为历史上罕见的特点之前，开发的技术方法论要求屋顶花园并未确立，因此几乎没有任何可能性的广泛传播。

在欧洲的经验在过去的15年创建长满草的屋顶--屋顶花园，已经导致了这种信息的宝贵来源，利用目前可用的屋面保温材料，可以设计优秀的多层次的、运转良好的绿色屋顶。例如，绿色屋顶的解决方案涉及一个测序的层和使用合适的材料，介绍了在德国、奥地利、瑞士和可以适应的其他地方，选择植物和保健技术是依赖于气候和地理位置，因此不能直接采用。在匈牙利的绿色屋顶使用主要是国内植物或这些外来品种长期适应应该考虑。有一个好机会获得成功的屋顶如果这些植物适应国内的气温和干燥。到1970年底时，在欧洲，绿色屋顶的概念被理解为所谓的密集的绿色屋顶花园。在过去的十年，由于改变的观点，广泛的屋顶已经得到广泛应用。这些屋顶已经被一个更

加生态城市规划的概念，特别是在设计广泛的工业建筑。观察密集型屋顶已经表明，直接利用屋顶花园是微不足道的。

2．施工

成本削减需求以及更轻的屋顶结构一直激励力量走向后面使用薄层状、更经济可行的广泛的绿色屋顶的解决方案。更简单的建设和维护选项已经把广泛的解决方案在一个更有利的位置。密集的屋顶花园的发展，大量的水和肥料是可用的，但是相应的，他们并没有持续多久。

与广泛的屋顶花园干草和草原类型植被得到地面以及自然发芽和持久的植物。可以观察到，自然植被能够再生发芽没有保健。绿色屋顶的解决方案在北欧共同利用一个厚层植被。然而，更多的是在这些地区降水特点然后在匈牙利，和有一个高的湿度以及整体水平。在中欧地区天气条件是不太有利的绿色屋顶。气候干燥和有一个更大的温度波动的气候。因此，对于广泛的绿色屋顶，水分平衡的屋顶必须仔细计划。在这些情况下不同的排水层扮演了一个重要的角色(见图1)以及边坡的程度和使用排水方法。

图2.1 绿色屋顶品种的排水角度有一个很好的机会，在欧洲中部产生了所谓的简单的密集型绿色屋顶的解决方案，即使是一些护理，也可以是一个可行的解决方案。在这个范畴内护理绿色屋顶，我们指的是必要的水供应，定期添加营养物质，切割和修剪。基于国际绿色屋面做法，以及国内绿色屋面实验，它可以确定，目前绿色屋顶是现实的替代品替代发达前绿色区域。大数量的现有的平屋顶和在建可以转化为生态功能的表面。

长满草的屋顶--屋顶花园提供一个优势绝缘屋顶和屋顶露台。一个重要的优势是愉

快、宁静的视图。绿色表面尤其可取为减轻刚性，箱式效应的建筑物。在1920年的勒·柯布西耶在他的著名论文在现代建筑，既指出了潜力扩大积极的生活地区屋顶花园。如今，发展的要求一个更健康的城市环境越来越迫切，因为空气污染是接近的公差范围。蒸发和氧气产生效应的种植植被屋顶的建筑物可以有助于改善小气候。蒸发控制空气温度和湿度，空气变得清洁而增加生产的氧气。

除尘效果的植被也显著应用以确保更有利的和更清洁的生活环境。对保留的降水和径流的延迟，绿色屋顶降低了在地下排水网络的应用。绿色屋顶种植植被增加绝缘能力，提高建筑物的能源平衡，导致能源储蓄。毫无疑问，绿色屋顶使建筑物荷载越来越更重的屋顶结构是必要的。值得注意的是，尽管如此，屋顶隔热层压低的砾石负载不超过压力负载的广泛的绿色屋顶层。

因此，我们可以问--砾石或草吗?--当谈到反沉淀绝缘负载在屋顶上。从生态观点毫无疑问关于正确的答案。通常绿色屋顶的分类按照功能、类型的植被来规划植被层的厚度。

对于广泛的绿色屋顶我们正在谈论耐寒、耐旱的植物在一个绝缘层上方开发与薄膜的土壤混合物和挡水膜，不适合支持人类体重不断。厚度的广泛的绿色屋顶是不到20厘米，和典型的表面质量是低于150公斤/平方米。对于广泛的绿色屋顶，植被层是由耐旱的草、短岩石花园植物和草原植物群。通常这些不需要常规护理,除了在移植时期。对于简单的宽广的屋顶，经过一些防水处理、规划和安装，能够建立植被层和种植。密集的特征是，它们绿色屋顶有一个厚的植被层比空旷的屋顶更好的进行屋顶保温，因此它可以充分被利用作为一个屋顶花园。他们适用于不同类型和大小的植物常绿乔木和灌木。灌木，他们需要经常护理和营养添加剂。他们可以是功能的屋顶和花园地区，因此，一些元素可以应用的园林设计，利用藤蔓缠绕、筛选、走道、凳子、覆盖等厚度的屋顶结构是通常密集花园20多厘米，通常20至40厘米，必须提供空间发展中植物的根和一个更大的根系统。表面结构的质量超过150公斤/平方米。开发一个密集的屋顶花园总是需要团队合作，合作努力的建筑师、设计师、结构工程师、景观设计师是至关重要的。一般来说，在实践中，绿色屋顶的屋顶因为在上组合的情况下两个地壳通风屋顶，轻的上流社会不适合支持更多的负载。异常是那些广泛的绿色屋顶只有几厘米的厚度，可以建立在打火机上地壳。也适合

绿色屋顶建筑屋顶的组合和绝缘屋顶薄膜应用太。在案件的屋顶改造，保持旧的隔热层和采用新的防水板层以及准备额外的绝缘，一个绿色屋顶的基础上层建筑可以建立。自然，添加额外的重量在旧屋顶只能如果负载能力的顶板支护结构已经正确检查。从理论上讲，一个绿色屋顶可以建立了表面上的任何平屋顶，如果它是防水和天花板结构可以负载。自然根电阻保护需要处理。基本上有两种类型的根保护。在分离类型的根保护系统薄膜不是根耐穿刺的，但简称“FLL”阻力试验的四年试验周期尚未完成日期，因为这个原因，它是暂时使用一个单独的根保护层。因此，对于分离系统的根，根护层保护是放置在一个不同的水平。对于一个集成的根保护系统，防水膜本身是被证明是根抗，所以额外的保护是不必要的。对于传统的屋顶平台解决方案，蒸汽负荷来自下方必须封锁，因为通常的通风的隔汽层几乎是不可能的，从审美的角度看，要避免通风管道。

对于I.R.M.A的解决方案，防水膜是在绝缘和没有蒸汽屏障层。这种方式有少层和施工工艺简化。是众所周知的，只有关闭细胞挤压硬泡沫聚苯乙烯保温使用(Roofmate)，插图和桁架在一层。相比传统的建设屋顶组成，大约20%的厚保温应被使用，由于绝缘表面的润湿，这导致冷却效果。一个要求对于承载的屋顶结构是适当的保温能力，钢铁水泥结构屋面质量250公斤/平方米最低标准。以上的其他层的保温应安装材料适合通风和扩散的蒸汽。在选择绿色屋顶施工方案与绝缘屋顶薄膜应用，上升的趋势应该考虑绝缘的，因此可能会提出一个浅广泛屋顶障碍。双重绝缘平屋顶的防水是定位在底部的层，这是便宜的，质量差，然后，在可能需要根保护层，来前绝缘层，它必须具有相同的质量为I.R.M.A这里有更少的危险与绝缘的上升然后I.R.M.A这里也应该被考虑。如果双重绝缘屋顶是新的，那么蒸汽屏障层是省略(工程批准)。如果双重绝缘的屋顶是用在屋顶保温改造，那么自然,原始层可以包含一个蒸汽块和蒸汽压均衡器层太。在改造旧屋顶保温，轻的广泛的绿色解决方案是可取的，因为一般负载容量限制必须被考虑。考虑到欧洲中部的气候，在这些情况下使用薄草皮或植被将是合适的，定期护理。

3．总结对于那些未来的业主、建筑师和建筑商谁接受和维护生态建筑的观点，绿色屋顶系统提供机会为一个审美和健康环境的创建屋顶种植绿色植被。技术和景观要求可供建筑

的屋顶，屋顶花园唯一需要的就是行动遵循的规范和规划，与人类的建设性的功能，这个地区是取自大自然来复活在我们的直接环境。

GREEN ROOFS IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT Prof. Dr. Attila Koppany

Abstract

The purpose of this short study is to present the historical precedents of roof lawns and gardens built in this century, and to show the real possibilities offered by the present level of water-proof building and gardening techniques to improve the city environment. In Europe, particularly in the last decade, the available amount of information on ’green roofs’ has increased signiﬁcantly. The ﬁrst domestic attempts in the ﬁeld of ’green roofs’ were made in the recent years, but the building profession has not been friendly towards this structural, ecological solution, and it was considered somewhat curious. The main reason for such an attitude is that the available international information (based on experiences, debate papers, studies, guidelines, handbooks etc.) has not reached those professionals, potential investors, and builders whose decision is necessary for the widespread acceptance of ’green roofs’.

1 CONCEPT AND HISTORY

The concept of roof gardens can be traced back virtually to the earliest building activities of man. Throughout the course of history we can see a demand for planting vegetation on roofs, among the most famous being ancient civilization’s hanging gardens of Babylon. During the Roman Empire and in the middle Ages green roofs were used by the ruling classes mainly for showing extravagance. In modern times and especially in twentieth century architecture, green gardens are treated as a natural phenomenon. A special implementation of roof gardens can be observed in Northern Europe’s native architecture in its tradition of slanted grassy rooftops. Nowadays and in the age of densely populated urban areas the lack of green turf causes concern, and for this reason the proponents of ecological architecture in Europe have been intensively dealt for several decades with the technical and landscaping issues relating to

the restoration of green areas. Long considered as uncommon peculiarities earlier in history, the development of the technical-methodological requirements for roof gardens had not been established, and therefore there was hardly any possibility of their extensive spread.

The experiences gained in Europe during the last 15 years in the creation of grassy rooftops and rooftop gardens, have led to such invaluable sources of information that, with the utilization of currently available rooﬁng insulation materials, it is possible to design excellent multi-layered, well-functioning green roofs. For example, the green roof solutions involving a sequencing of layers and use of suitable materials, introduced in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, can be adapted well elsewhere. The choice of employed plants and care techniques are dependent upon the climate and geographic location, and therefore cannot be directly adopted. In Hungarian green roofs the use of primarily domestic plants or those alien varieties that have long acclimatized should be considered. There is a good chance of achieving success of grassy rooftops if domestic, uncultivated, heat and dryness tolerant grasses are used.

Up through the end of the 1970’s, in Europe, the concept of green roof was understood to be the so called intensive green roof garden. During the last ten years, however, as a result of a change in point of view, the extensive roofs have become widespread. These roofs have given way to a more ecological city planning concept, especially in the design of extensive industrial buildings. Observation of intensive roofs has shown that the direct utilization of roof gardens is negligible.

2 CONSTRUCTIONS

Cost cutting requirements as well as lighter roof structures have been motivating forces behind the move toward the use of the thin layered, more economically viable extensive green roof solution. The simpler construction and maintenance options have placed the extensive solution in a more favorable position.

The intensive roof gardens developed well where plenty of water and fertilizer were available, but left alone, they didn’t last long.

With extensive roof gardens the dry grasses and steppe-type vegetation gained ground as well as the naturally sprouting and enduring plants. It has been observed that the naturally

sprouting vegetation is able to regenerate annually without care.

The green roof solutions common in Northern Europe utilized a thicker layer of vegetation. However, much more precipitation is characteristic in these areas then in Hungary, and there is a higher overall level of humidity as well. In Central Europe the weather conditions for green roofs are somewhat less favorable.

The climate is drier and there is a greater ﬂuctuation in temperature. Therefore, in the case of extensive green roofs, the moisture-balance property of the roofs has to be carefully planned. In these cases the different drainage layers play a signiﬁcant role (see ﬁgure 1) as well as the degree of the slope and the usage of drainage method.

Figure 1:

Figure 1

There is a good chance of the survival of the so called simpler intensive green roof solution, which, with some care, can be a viable solution even in Central Europe. In this category, under care, we mean the necessary water supply, periodical addition of nutrients, cutting and mowing.

Based on international green rooﬁng practices, as well as domestic green rooﬁng

experiments, it can be determined that currently green roofs are realistic alternatives for the replacement of developed former green areas. The great number of existing ﬂat roofs and

those under construction can be converted into ecologically functioning surfaces.

Grassy roofs and roof gardens provide an advantage over insulated roofs and roof terraces. One important advantage is the pleasant, tranquil view. Green surfaces are especially

desirable for lessening the rigid, box-type effect of buildings. In the 1920’s Le Corbusier, in his acclaimed thesis on modern architecture, already pointed out the potentials for expanding the active living areas with roof gardens.

Nowadays, the demand for the development of a healthier urban environment is getting more and more urgent since air pollution is nearing the limits of tolerance. The evaporation and oxygen producing effect of the planted vegetation on the roofs of buildings can contribute to the improvement of the microclimate. Evaporation controls the air temperature and humidity, the air becoming cleaner with the increased production of oxygen.

Dust removal effect of vegetation is also signiﬁcant ensuring more favourable and cleaner living conditions. With the retention of precipitation and the delay of run-off, the green roof decreases the strain on the gutter network. Green roofs planted with vegetation have an increased insulating capacity which improve the balance of energy of the buildings, leading to energy savings. There is no doubt that green roofs cost more and a stronger heavier roof structure is needed. It should be noted, however, that the roof insulation layers held down by the gravel load do not exceed the stress load of the extensive green roof layers.

Therefore, we can ask - gravel or grass? - When speaking about the anti-precipitation insulation load on the roof. From an ecological viewpoint there is no doubt about the correct answer. Usually green roofs are classiﬁed according to function, type of vegetation, and the thickness of the vegetation layer.

In the case of extensive green roofs we are talking about hardy, dryness tolerant ﬂora above an insulation layer developed with a thin mempane of soil mixture and a water retaining mempane, not suitable for supporting human weight constantly. The thickness of the extensive green roofs is less than 20cm, and the typical surface mass is less than 150kg/m2. In the case of extensive green roofs, the vegetation layer is made up of dryness tolerant grasses, short rock garden plants, and steppe ﬂora. Usually these do not require regular care, except during the transplanting period. In the case of simpler extensive roofs, the insulation

installers, after some training, are able to build up the vegetation layer and do the planting. Characteristic of the intensive green roofs is that they have a thicker vegetation layer above the roof insulation than the one on the extensive roof, and therefore it can fully be utilized as a roof garden.

They are suitable for different types and sizes of plants from evergreen trees and bushes to shrubs. They require regular care and nutrient additives. They can be functional roof and garden areas, and therefore, some of the elements of garden design can be applied, utilizing pergolas, screening, covered walkways, benches, etc. The thickness of intensive garden roof structures is generally more than 20cm, usually between 20 and 40cm. Space must be provided for the developing roots of plants with a larger root system. The mass of the surface structure is more than 150kg/m2. The development of an intensive roof garden always requires team work, the cooperative effort of architect, designer, structural engineer and landscape architect is essential. Generally, in practice, green roofs are on built-up roofs, since in the case of the two-crust ventilated roofs, the lighter upper crust is not suitable for the support of more load. Exceptions are those extensive green roofs which are only a few centimeters in thickness, which can be built on the lighter upper crust. Also suitable for green roof building are the built-up roof and the insulated roof mempane application too. In cases of roof renovation, keeping the old insulation layers and with the use of new waterprooﬁng plies as well as preparation additional insulation, the basis of a green roof superstructure can be built up. Naturally, the addition of extra weight on the old roof can only be done if the load capacity of the roof support structure has been properly checked.

Theoretically, a green roof can be built up on the surface of any ﬂat roof, if it is waterproof and the ceiling structure can take the load. Naturally the root resistance protection needs to be dealt with. Basically there are two types of root protection. In the separated type of root protection system the mempane is not root resistant, but the FLL resistance test’s four year test period has not been completed to date, and for this reason, it is temporarily used with a separate root protection layer. Therefore, in the case of a separated system of root protection, the root protecting layer is placed on a distinct level. In the case of an integrated root protection system, the waterproof mempane itself is proven to be root resistant, so additional

protection is unnecessary. For conventional ﬂat roof solutions, the vapor load coming from beneath must be blocked, since the usual ventilation of vapor barrier is hardly possible, and from an aesthetic point of view, ventilation pipes are to be avoided.

For I.R.M.A. type solutions, the waterprooﬁng mempane is underneath the insulation and there is no vapor barrier layer. This way there are less layers and the construction technology is simpliﬁed. As is generally known, only closed cell extruded hard polystyrene foam thermal insulation is to be used (Roommate), with inset and truss in one layer. Compared to the

construction of the conventional built-up roof, about a 20% thicker thermal insulation should be used, due to the moistening of the insulation surface, and the cooling effect this causes. A requirement regarding the load carrying roof structure is the proper heat retaining capacity, with a steel-cement structure roof mass of 250kg/m2 minimum criterion. Above the thermal insulation the other layers should be installed with materials suitable for ventilation and diffusion of vapors. In choosing the green roof construction solution with insulated roof mempane application, the rising tendency of the insulation should be considered, and therefore a shallow extensive roof might present an obstacle.

With dual insulated ﬂat roofs, the waterprooﬁng is positioned at the bottom layer which is cheaper and has a poorer quality, and then, after the possibly required root protection layer, comes the top insulation layer, which has to have the same quality as the I.R.M.A. Here there is less danger of rising then with the insulation of I.R.M.A., here too it should be considered. If the dual insulated roof is new, then the vapor barrier layer is omitted (with engineering approval). If the dual insulated roof is used in the renovation of roof insulation, then naturally, the original layers could contain a vapor-block and vapor-pressure equalizer layer too.

In the renovation of old roof insulation; the lighter extensive green solutions are advisable, since generally the load capacity limits have to be considered. In these cases the use of thin sod or a precultivated vegetation cover would be suitable, with periodical care, considering the climate of Central Europe.

3 SUMMARY

For those future home owners, architects, and builders who accept and assert the views of ecological architecture, the green roof system provides the chance to contribute to an aesthetic

and healthy environment with the creation of roofs planted with green vegetation. The technical and landscaping requirements are available for the construction of grassy roofs and roof gardens; the only thing needed is that action follows the words and planning, so that with human constructive capabilities, the areas taken from nature are made to come alive again in our immediate environment.

德国屋顶花园绿化

（德）渥尔纳·皮特·库斯特

摘要

本文介绍了德国屋顶花园的类型、构造、工作原理、政府的政策支持。屋顶花园是必需品，而不是奢侈品。

关键词：风景园林；屋顶花园；综述；开敞型

1 屋顶花园的优势

屋顶花园拥有很多优势，这是一个毋庸置疑也不可否认的事实。有些人还存有疑虑或持相反观点，其主要原因是这些人不了解屋顶花园的技术发展。在30年前或者仅仅15年前，这些疑问更多地与技术相关，如今疑问主要与成本相关。现在我们能否拥有屋顶花园已完全不成问题，因为屋顶花园是必需品，而不是奢侈品。

⑴ 高度水分保持

根据屋顶花园的设计，直接的水分流失量将减少70%~90（100）%。排水口的数量能够大大减少，管道的直径也可以更小，因此能够节省大量建筑费用。所收集的水资源也同样能够通过日常的蒸发和输送达到自然循环。

⑵ 空间的利用

将普通的未被使用的屋顶区域设计为屋顶花园，尤其是作为公共娱乐和运动建筑的屋顶，不仅充分利用宝贵的空间，同时也降低了购买土地的费用。

⑶ 动植物栖息的大自然

屋顶花园很少被打扰，环境优美，益虫可以找到一方生存的净土，鸟儿也可以找到一片栖息地。布满屋顶花园的城市就是在都市里建立了适合小动物生存的大自然。

⑷ 降低灰尘与烟雾浓度

屋顶花园帮助过滤灰尘和烟雾颗粒，从大气和雨水中吸收危害性物质，并将其从土壤中去除。

⑸ 延长屋顶使用寿命

屋顶花园保护防水层不受气候、紫外线以及其他损伤，这大大延长了建筑的使用寿命。裸露屋顶在夏天高温时可以达到100℃以上，而夜间降至20℃以下，这就意味着防水层材料、连接处和其他材料都处在极度疲劳的状态。

由于系统所具备的蒸发、阴凉和大气循环的冷却效应，一个屋顶花园最高温度为25℃（德国），并且降温缓慢。

⑹ 降低噪声

屋顶花园至少可以减少3分贝噪声，同时隔绝噪声效能达到8分贝。这对于某些位于机场附近或有喧闹的迪斯科舞厅等大型设备的建筑来说最为有效。

⑺ 作为附加的隔热层

系统能够带给屋顶一片阴凉，空气流通以及蒸发能够大大冷却屋顶并保护屋顶不受高温伤害。对于建筑物的顶层至少能够节省50%用于空调的能源，可以节省50%的冬季供暖能源。

⑻ 改善气候环境

屋顶花园能够冷却周围环境的大气并增加湿度，从而创造出一个小气候。大气的生成改善了城市的大气状况，减少大气污染。

⑼ 避免热岛效应

植物蒸腾的水分吸收热量，并冷却大气。绿化植被净化大气并且减少潜在的烟雾威胁，因此屋顶花园拥有巨大的潜力。

2 德国屋顶花园的特色

中德两国屋顶绿化区别的主要表现之一是：在德国，80%的屋顶绿化都是开敞型。在中国，开敞型屋顶绿化非常少见。虽然仅有少量的样板工程，但是开敞型屋顶绿化的益处已经越来越明显。现在已经有很多的学术机构和行业组织正在致力于制订新规定和标准。

在德国，开敞型屋顶绿化面积取决于绿化形式和质量施工的不同，50%都被计算入绿地率，有的时候甚至更多。

德国政府对于绿化有着一整套政策支持系统。在一些特定的区域，比如“新建工业区”，主要是指那些新建的大型工业区域，开敞型屋顶绿化往往被视为一种义务，开发商被强制进行屋顶绿化。

另外一个鼓励开发商绿化屋顶的方法就是为被覆盖表面减免雨水流失费。在德国，开敞型屋顶绿化被看作是半覆盖表面，因此，此项雨水流失费用至少可以节约50%。

在德国，屋顶花园覆盖整个屋顶区域。屋顶绿化系统同样也安装在人行道、行车道、游乐区域以及池塘之下。在中国的密集型屋顶绿化，绿化区域往往彼此分离。这样就使得灌溉效率十分低下、后期养护困难重重，设计师设计时无从下手，因为他们不得不考虑排水口在什么位置。

在德国，地下停车场顶盖绿化也被看作是屋顶绿化，因为所使用的技术是相近的。在中国，地下停车场顶板的绿化却需要至少3M覆土才被承认为绿地。3M覆土显然是对金钱和自然资源的浪费。原土的比重约为2.8t/立方米，也就是说如果覆土厚度达到3M，覆土荷载约为8.4t/立方米。这样一来，主体结构就需要大量的钢筋和混凝土。这样不仅成本加高，开发商还失去了整整一层楼的开发空间。中国的原土资源非常紧缺，大量使用原土资源无疑是对远郊区域自然环境的破坏。最重要的是：没有任何一种绿化形式需要3M的覆土。

在德国，无论是密集型绿化形式还是开敞型绿化形式，屋顶绿化都必须具备防植物根穿刺的防水层或者是单独的隔根层。但是在中国的很多工程的防水材料质量存在严重的问题，不能够很好地保护建筑屋顶结构。

3 屋顶花园的类型

3．1 屋顶绿化类型

屋顶形式千差万别，有平屋顶、坡屋顶、拱形屋顶、蝶形屋顶等等。同时屋顶绿化系统也是千差万别的。在这里，仅介绍其中最为普遍的几种绿化系统，它们分别是：开敞型屋顶绿化、半密集型屋顶绿化以及密集型屋顶绿化。

3.1.1 开敞型屋顶绿化系统

开敞型屋顶绿化，又称粗放型屋顶绿化，是屋顶绿化中最简单的一种形式，具有以下基本特征：

⑴ 低养护

⑵ 免灌溉

⑶ 从苔藓、景天到草坪地被型绿化

⑷ 整体高度6~20cm

⑸ 重量为60~200kg/平方米

在德国，这种绿化形式非常普遍，绿化效果比较粗放和自然化，让人们有接近自然的感觉，所选用的植物往往也是一些景天科的植物，这类植物具有抗干旱、生命力强的特点，并且颜色丰富鲜艳，绿化效果显著。

由于开敞型屋顶绿化具备重量轻、养护粗放的特点，因此比较适合于荷载有限以及后期养护投资有限的屋顶。我们亲切地称它为“生态毯”。

3.1.2 半密集型屋顶绿化系统

半密集型屋顶绿化，是介于开敞型屋顶绿化和密集型屋顶绿化之间的一种绿化形式，植物选择趋于复杂，效果也更加美观，它所具备的特点如下：

⑴ 定期养护

⑵ 定期灌溉

⑶ 从草坪绿化屋顶到灌木绿化屋顶

⑷ 整体高度12~25cm

⑸ 重量为120~250kg/平方米

半密集型屋顶绿化居于自然野性和人工雕琢之间，很自然，低矮灌木和彩色花朵完美结合，但是由于系统重量的增加，设计师可以加入更多的设计理念，设计更加自由，一些人工造景也可以得到很好地展示。

3.1.3 密集型屋顶绿化系统

密集型屋顶绿化，是植被绿化与人工造景、亭台楼阁、溪流水榭的完美组合，它具备以下几个特点：

⑴ 经常养护

⑵ 经常灌溉

⑶ 从草坪、常绿植物到灌木、乔木

⑷ 整体高度15~≥100cm

⑸ 重量为150~≥1000kg/平方米

密集型屋顶绿化是真正意义上的“屋顶花园”，高大的乔木、低矮的灌木、鲜艳的

花朵，植物的选择随心所欲；还可设计休闲场所、运动场地、儿童游乐场、人行道、车行道、池塘喷泉等。

3.2 屋顶绿化系统工作原理

如何有效解决中国气候干燥，淡水资源紧缺的现状？如何利用有限的雨水资源？蓄排水系统无疑是最佳选择，土壤、蓄排水盘、保湿毯，层层保水，互相补充，蓄水量可达70%以上。

蓄排水系统，顾名思义，除了蓄水功能，强大的排水功能也是其优势的凸现之处，蓄排水盘结构的特殊设计能够保证在水分饱和的情况下，将水排至排水口，整个系统蓄、排结合。

除了让植物根系直接吸收水分，不容忽视的是通过蒸发，以蒸发的形式供给水分，排水系统的特殊设计使这二者有机结。另外也更加充分地利用水资源，完全杜绝了植物干湿交替频繁的现象。

3.3 屋顶绿化土壤简介

3.3.1 良好的屋顶绿化土壤的特点：

⑴ 良好的稳定性

⑵ 不易受风力、水力侵蚀

⑶ 根据植物调节水量

⑷ 良好的通风和渗水性能

⑸ 良好的吸收与缓冲性能

⑹ 重量轻

⑺ 免受杂草、疾病以及有害物质侵害

⑻ 避免飞溅的火花以及光线引起的火灾

3.3.2 屋顶绿化土壤成分分析

图3.2 屋顶绿化土壤成分分析

3.3.3 屋顶绿化土壤制作过程

将矿物质（主要是瓦片）压碎，与有机物质（主要是灌木与乔木的残枝）混合，加入普通土壤中。

图3.3 屋顶绿化土壤制作过程

4 政府的政策支持与规范的制订

4.1 政策支持

回顾一下德国屋顶绿化历史：德国已有相关的屋顶绿化技术和世界范围内最大的屋顶花园市场。现在市场上使用的系统产品有了多年历史，基础技术也已经有25年历史了。早期，德国的屋顶花园仅仅作为环境议题予以考虑。幸运的是，自从1973年的石油危机和绿色组织的不断壮大，人们也逐渐地改变了原有的行为和态度。在20世纪80年代中叶，当绿色组织最早加入当地政府的时候，一些有关推广屋顶花园的议题就被提上了议事日程。

起初当地政府部门要求在一些建筑区域进行屋顶绿化作为对自然的补偿，首先是轻工业区，之后是写字楼、公寓楼以及相关建筑。当屋顶花园建设逐步写入当地建筑规范之后，还有很多官员存在理解上的问题。他们关系的是开发商是否真的肯于进行屋顶绿化，屋顶花园使工程成本升高，会促使开发商选择其他城市进行项目兴建。

但是之后的事实证明，屋顶花园并不是那么昂贵，并且还存在一些益处，使开发商反而欢迎屋顶花园，那就是屋顶花园可以提升他们的声誉。随着绿色组织的不断壮大以及人们意识的不断提高，屋顶花园越来越流行。新修订的鼓励开发商兴建屋顶花园的相关规范也不断颁布。但是绝大多数的开发商仍然需要通过法律和规定的强制才能完成屋顶花园的建设，这样一来就导致了其他的一些问题出现：因为成本要尽量节省至最低，一些屋顶花园质量不能得到保证，如不是完全被绿化，覆土厚度有限，只能允许某些景天科植物生存。

单一绿化屋顶花园并不是政府希望看到的结果，甚至有时植物并不能完全成活、一些屋顶开始出现渗水等，这些都不同程度地损害了屋顶绿化的声誉。随着时间的推移，一些地方政府认识到利用屋顶花园来提高公共福利水平，降低税率甚至直接或间接补贴屋顶绿化不失为上策。通过政府部门的规定、补贴政策以及额外财政支持，令屋顶花园的推广更加容易。

根据地方政府关于中水费用的最新规定，中水费用中50%应该来自淡水消费，另50%来自被覆盖表面。新规定内容如下：

10cm以上的覆土以及适当绿化的屋顶花园被看作是至少能够蓄存年降水量的50%（保存的这50%将会通过蒸发被二次利用，从屋顶流失的水分往往小于50%，因为屋顶花园往往能够储存大量水分甚至更多）。

这些新规定实际上是一种对屋顶花园的间接补贴，不会花费政府一分钱，甚至还会节省公共费用，因为这是一项人民的福利措施。考虑到日益增加的淡水费用，一些年后房产所有人就能够还清贷款。

在德国的一些城市以及省份，地方政府已经认识到了屋顶花园的优势并且开始予以补贴—每平方米15欧元。在德国，面积大于500平方米的屋顶绿化成本完全可以低于15欧元，其形式往往是特定区域常绿的开敞型屋顶花园。

4.2 标准和技术指南

在德国，从所周知的是DIN，即德国国家工业标准，而在园林绿化方面，更加有权威的是FLL，即园林绿化研究、发展与建设团体制订并颁布的同名规范。园林绿化研究、发展与建设组织（FLL）于1975年成立，研究、创立、普及并推广一切与园林绿化发展相关的原则、指南与规范，从而确保环境质量。这些法律出版物涵盖了园林绿化材料、植物与种植技术、园林工程的施工与养护等等一切相关内容。

绿色屋顶的设计、安装以及后期养护技术指南（“FLL-Richtlinien”,Fuidelines for the Planning, lnstallation and Maintenance ot Greed Roofs）主要针对的是屋顶绿化工程相关技术指导，涉及内容包括：屋顶绿化的设计，屋顶绿化工程的施工和屋顶绿化产品安装的技术，以及屋顶绿化完成之后养护工作的规定和技术指南。这项指南是当今屋顶绿化领域内最全面也是最权威的一项指南，德国乃至整个欧洲的园林绿化行业都需遵循这项规定。

Roof Garden in Germany

（Germany）Werner Peter Kuesters

Abstract

This paper introduces the types of roof garden in Germany, structure, working principle, the governments policy support. Roof garden is a necessity, not luxury.

Key words: landscape architecture; Roof garden; Review; Open type

1 the advantage of roof garden

Roof garden has many advantages; it is a needless to say it is undeniable fact. Some people still have doubts or take the opposite point of view; the main reason is that these people dont understand the technology development of roof garden. In the 30 years ago or just 15 years ago, these questions more associated with technology. Now questions mainly related to the cost. Now we can have roof garden has completely is not a problem, because of the roof garden is a necessity, rather than a luxury. (1) Maintain moisture

According to the roof garden design, direct moisture loss will be reduced 70% ~ 90 (100) %. Drain can greatly reduce the number of the diameter of the pipe can be smaller, so we can save a lot of buildings. The collected water also can be transmitted through daily evaporation and natural circulation.

⑵ The use of space

Ordinary unused roof area for roof garden design, especially as a public entertainment and sports building roof, not only make full use of valuable space, but also reduce the cost of buying land. (3) Nature of animal and plant habitat

Roof garden is rarely bother, a beautiful environment, beneficial insects can find a pure land to survive; the birds can also find a habitat. Is full of roof garden city is established suitable for small animals to survive in cities the nature. (4) Reduce the concentration of dust and smoke

Roof garden to help filter the dust and smoke particles from the air and rain in the absorption of harmful substances, and its removal from the soil.

⑸ could prolong the service life of roof

Roof garden protection waterproof layer is not affected by climate, ova and other

damage, which greatly extend the service life of the building. Bare roof at high temperature can reach above 100 ℃ in summer, while night fell to below 20 ℃, which means that the waterproof layer material, joint and other material was in a state of extreme fatigue.

Because the system of evaporation, shade, and the cooling effect of atmospheric circulation, a roof garden the highest temperature is 25 ℃ (Germany), and cool down slowly.

⑹ Reduce noise

Roof garden at least 3 db noise can be reduced, and noise isolation efficiency reaches 8 decibels. That for some there is noisy disco near the airport or for buildings and other large equipment is the most effective.

⑺ As additional thermal insulation layer

System is able to ping a piece of a cool roof, air flow and evaporation can greatly

cooling roof and protect against high temperature damage. To the top floor of the building can save at least 50% for air conditioning energy, can save 50% of the winter heating energy.

⑻ To improve the climate environment

Roof garden to cooling ambient atmosphere and increase of humidity, thus creating a microclimate, atmosphere generated to improve the urban atmospheric conditions, reduce air pollution.

(9) Avoid heat island effect

Transpiration moisture absorbing heat and cooling the atmosphere; green vegetation, purify the atmosphere and reduce the potential threat of smoke, so the roof garden has great potential. 2 Characteristic of roof garden in Germany

China and Germany rooftop greenery other one of the main performances is: in Germany, 80% of the roof greening is open type. In China, the open type of roof greening is very rare. Although only a small number of model projects, but the benefits of open type roof greening has become increasingly obvious. Now has a lot of academic institutions and industry groups are working to develop new rules and standards.

In Germany, the open type of roof greening area depends on the green form and quality of construction, 50% were calculated in the rate, sometimes even more.

The German government for greening has a set of policy support system. In some

specific areas, such as

Another encouraging developer to green roofs is to be covered surface relief rain erosion.

In Germany, the open type of roof greening is seen as a half covered surface; therefore, the rainwater drain cost can save at least 50%.

In Germany, roof garden covers the whole area. Roof greening system is also installed on the sidewalk, driveway, recreation area, and the pond. In China intensive green roofs, green areas are often separated from each other. Irrigation efficiency is very low, which

makes the late maintenance difficulties, when designers design a hindrance, because they had to consider drain in what position.

In Germany, underground parking lot is also seen as roof greening, roof greening for the use of technology is similar. Underground parking garage roof greening in China, but need at least 3 m turns the soil to be recognized as green. 3 m apparently turns the soil is a waste of money and natural resources. The proportion of the original soil of about 2.8 t/m3, that is to say, if the thickness of overburden soil reaches 3 m, turns the soil load of about 8.4 t/m3. As a result, the main structure will need a lot of steel and concrete. Not only cost is higher,

developers also lost a whole floor space for development. Chinas soil resource is very scarce, extensive use of the original soil resources is undoubtedly damage to suburban areas of the natural environment. The most important thing is: theres no need a greening form 3 m turns the soil.

In Germany, whether intensive greening form or open type greening, roof greening plant roots puncture proof for the waterproof layer or a separate root isolation layer. But many of the engineering of waterproof material in China there are serious quality problems, will not be able to well protect building roof structure.

3 The type of roof garden 3.1 Roof greening types

Differ in thousands ways of roof form, with a flat roof, sloping roof, roof arch, butterfly roof and so on. Roof greening system is differ in thousands ways at the same time. Here, only a few of the most common greening system is introduced in this paper, they respectively are: the open type of roof greening, half intensive green roofs and the intensive green roof.

3.1.1 Open type of green roof systems

Open type of roof greening, also called extensive green roof, roof greening is one of the simplest form, has the following basic features: (1) Low maintenance (2) Free of irrigation (3) From moss, stonecrop to type lawn is green (4)The overall height 6 ~ 20 cm (5)Weight is 60 ~ 200 kg/m2

In Germany, this green form is so common, greening effect is more extensive and natural, make people feel closer to nature, the chosen plants tend to be some crassulaceae plants, this kind of plant has the characteristics of drought resistance, vitality is strong, pight color and rich, greening effect is remarkable.

Due to the open type of roof greening has the characteristics of light weight, maintained extensive, therefore more suitable for the roof load limited and later maintenance investment co., LTD. We affectionately call it

Half intensive green roofs, is between the open type of roof greening and intensive

between a form of green roof garden, plant selection becomes complex, result is more beautiful, also it has the characteristics as follows:

⑴ Maintenance on a regular basis

⑵ Irrigation on a regular basis

⑶ From the lawn greening roof greening to shrubs

⑷ The overall height 12 ~ 25 cm

⑸ Weight is 120 ~ 250 kg/m2

Half intensive between natural wild and artificial carve in the roof garden, very natural, low shrubs and flower color combination, but due to the increase in weight system, designer can add more design concept, design more freedom, some artificial landscape also can get a good show. 3.1.3 Intensive green roof systems

Intensive green roofs, green vegetation and artificial landscape perfect combination,

pavilions, streams waterside pavilion, it has the following characteristics: (1) Constant maintenance (2) Often the irrigation (3) From the lawn, evergreen shrubs and trees (4) The overall height of 15-100 cm or more (5) Weight is 150 ~ 1000 kg/square meter or more

Intensive green roof is in the true sense of

flowers, plant choice follow ones inclinations; Can also be designed leisure places, sports venues, childrens playground, sidewalks, roadway, fountain, pond, etc. 3.2 Roof greening system principle of work

How to effectively solve the Chinese climate is dry, the present situation of the shortage of fresh water resources? How to make use of limited water resources? Drainage system is undoubtedly the best choice, soil, drainage plate storage, protect wet blanket, layer upon layer water, supplement each other, storage capacity can reach more than 70%.

Accumulation of drainage system, as the name implies, besides the function of water storage, powerful drainage as well as the advantages of protruding, drainage plate storage structure of the special design can guarantee under the condition of the water saturation, the water to drain; the system as a whole row of storage.

In addition to plant roots absorb moisture directly, cannot be ignored by evaporation, evaporation in the form of water supply, drainage system of the special design makes the two organic knot. Also more fully utilization of water resources, to completely eliminate the plants dry and wet alternation frequent phenomenon.

3.3 Roof greening soil profile 3.3.1 Good characteristics of roof greening soil

(1) Good stability

(2) Susceptible to wind and water erosion

(3) According to the adjustment of water plants

(4) Good ventilation and porous

(5) Good absorption and buffer performance

(6) Light in weight

(7) From the weed, disease and harmful substances

(8) Avoid splashing sparks and light caused by the fire

3.3.2 Roof greening soil composition analysis

Figure 3.1 roof greening soil composition analysis 3.3.3 Roof greening soil production process

Crushed minerals (mainly tiles), and organic substances (mainly shrubs and trees of panches) mix, add to the common soil.

Figure 3.2 roof greening soil production process

4、The governments policy support and standard formulation 4.1 Policy support

Roof greening history review of Germany: Germany existing roof greening technology and largest rooftop garden market worldwide. Now use the system on the market has years of history, basic technology also has a history of 25 years. Germanys roof garden, early, is only a consideration of environmental issues. Fortunately, since the 1973 oil crisis and the growing green group, the people also gradually change the original behavior and attitude. In the mid - 1980 - s, when the green groups at the earliest to join the local government, some issues about promotion of roof garden have been on the agenda.

Initially required by local government departments in some construction area of roof greening as the compensation of nature, first is light industrial area, followed by office buildings, apartment buildings and related structures. When the construction of roof garden gradually into the local building code; there are many officials to understand the problems. Their relationship is whether developers really need for roof greening, roof garden project cost rise, developers tend to choose other cities for project construction.

But after it has been proved that the roof garden is not so expensive, and there are some benefits, roof garden, to make developers instead of welcome thats roof garden can improve their reputation. With the growing green groups and people consciousness unceasing enhancement, roof garden more and more popular. New revised encourage developers to build a rooftop garden related specification has been issued. But the vast majority of

developers still need to pass laws and regulations of mandatory to complete the construction of roof garden, thus causing some of the other problems appear: because of cost savings as far as possible to a minimum, some roof garden quality cannot be guaranteed, if green is not completely, the covering soil thickness is limited, can only allow certain crassulaceae plants to survive.

Single green roof garden is not the result of the government wants to see, and even sometimes plants cannot fully survive, some roof began seeping in. These are damaged the reputation of roof greening in different degrees. With the passage of time, some local governments realize the use of roof gardens to improve the level of public welfare, lower taxes and even subsidies directly or indirectly roof greening is the best policy. Through government regulation and subsidies, and additional financial support, the roof garden promotion more easily.

According to the latest regulations on water costs of local government, 50% of water fee should be from the freshwater consumption, the other 50% from the cover surface. New regulations are as follows:

Above 10 cm of overlying soil and appropriate green roof garden is seen as a

accumulation of annual precipitation at least 50% (saved this 50% will be secondary use, by evaporation from the roof drain water is often less than 50%, because of the roof garden can store large amounts of water or even more).

The new rules, in fact, a kind of indirect subsidy to the roof garden, dont cost a cent; government can even save public cost, because this is a peoples welfare measures. Given the increasing cost of freshwater in some years property owners will be able to pay off the loan. Some provinces and cities in Germany, local governments have realized the advantages of roof garden and began to give subsidies - 15 Euros per square meter. In Germany, the area of

more than 500 square meters of green roofs can cost less than 15 Euros its form is usually evergreen open type of roof garden in a particular area. 4.2 Standards and technical guidelines

In Germany, from well-known is DIN, the German industrial standards of the state, and in terms of landscape, more authoritative is FLL, the landscape of research, development and construction organizations to formulate and promulgate the same specification. Landscape research, development and construction organizations (FLL) was established in 1975, all research, creation, dissemination and promotion related to landscape development principles, guidelines and specifications, so as to ensure the quality of the environment. These legal publications covering landscaping materials, plant and planting technology, the botanical garden construction and maintenance and so on all related content.

Green roof design, installation and technical guidelines in the late Maintenance (FLL - Richtlinien, Fuidelines for Planning, lnstallation and Maintenance of Greed out) at the roof greening projects related technical guidance, involves the contents include: design of roof greening, roof greening projects of construction and green product installation technology, and the provisions of the roof greening after completion of Maintenance work and technical guidance. This guide is the roof greening area one of the most comprehensive and most authoritative guide, the landscaping industry in Germany and Europe are required to follow this rule.

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